...Accounting history is important because it is the most important professions in economic, business and cultural development. It sum of all the events--that have happened in accounting field. This sum guides our actions in the present in accounting profession. Accountants invented writing, involved development of money and banking, innovated the double entry bookkeeping system that fueled the Italian Renaissance, saved many Industrial Revolution inventors and entrepreneurs survive, participated in the development of the capital markets necessary for western capitalism. In the 20th century, accounting had changed into a profession that brought credibility for complex business practices that sparked the economic, and as a platform to the information revolution that is transforming the global economy . Most of us don’t know the names of accounting innovators; in reality, there are no names were known before the Italian Renaissance. The early history and scholars from many fields showed the importance of accounting to so many aspects of economics and culture in the past. Archaeologists discover the interpretations of the artifacts of the ancient accountants, and it is developed over 5,000 years. Accounting was main factor to the success of Italian merchants, necessary to the birth of the Renaissance and Industrial Revolution firms. Nowadays, a global economy integrated information system is a reality, creating new accounting paradigms. Understanding accounting history is...
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...Accountancy is the production of financial records for organizations and shows readers in money terms the economic resources the company has under its control and represents it in terms of relevance and does this faithfully. Accounting is called “the language of business” because it acts as a vehicle for a business entity to report their financial information to groups of people outside of the company’s day to day activities. Some researchers believe the earliest instance of accounting was from a cave engraving in South Africa that was dated 76,000 years old. However the earliest proven accounting records have been dated back 7,000 years ago and were found in Mesopotamia. The people of the time relied on its primitive practices to record the growth of crops and herds. In Iran during the 4th and 3rd century, socioeconomic situations led to unequal distributions of wealth and so the leaders and priests appointed people to look after the financial matters. Godin Tepe, an archaeological site in western Iran, scripts only containing tables with figures were found. In Tepe Yahya, an archaeological site found in the Kerman Province in Iran, the scripts contained geographical representations as well. In both sites buildings containing large rooms for storage crops had tokens that were used for bookkeeping purposes on clay scripts which represented a cognitive leap for mankind. (Accountancy, n.d.) These early practices of record keeping were used mainly for the record keeper and...
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...(Tom) ROWLES B.Ec (Hons), Dip.Ed (Monash) A THESIS SUBMITED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTING AND LAW OF RMIT UNIVERSITY, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA ii DECLARATION I certify that: Except where due acknowledgement has been made, this thesis is mine alone; and The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or part, to qualify for any other academic award; and The content of the thesis is the result of work that has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research programme. THOMAS R. ROWLES iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Introduction Purpose of the Study Sombart’s Hypothesis An Alternative Model; Entrepreneurial Decision-making Context: The Industrial Revolution and ‘Profit’ The Changing Nature of ‘Investment’ The Great Depression of 1873-96 Intellectual Introspection Irving Fisher and the Conception of Capital and Income 17 17 17 23 25 26 30 32 34 34 35 36 38 38 38 39 43 46 49 50 51 54 55 1.10 Research Issues Identified 1.11 Summary Derivation of Research Issues 2.1 2.2 Introduction Evidence from Extant Accounts 2.2.1 Fixed Assets in Mercantile Accounting 2.2.2 The East India Company 2.2.3 Fixed Assets and Early Industrial Accounting 2.2.4 Capital Asset Accounting After 1870 2.2.4.i Renewal Accounting 2.2.4.ii Double-Account System 2.2.4.iii A Rejected Hypothesis 2.3 Steam and Iron: the ‘Railway Age’ iv 2.3.1 ‘Loco...
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...“The History of Accounting” Accounting is one of the oldest professions and the growth and spread of the profession can be paralleled with the growth and spread of Western Civilizations. Through archaeological discoveries the use of accounting can be dated back almost 7,000 years ago. Many of today’s accounting practices came from the Italian Renaissance. The sophistication of double entry accounting was accompanied by an overwhelming demand for professional accountants to follow the guidelines. The expanding profession of accounting really took off with the coming of the Industrial Revolution in America. The use of accounting practice has been around for ages and the growth of the use and practices can be seen to reflect the growth of trade, cities, and the concepts of wealth and numbers. Ancient Mesopotamian artifacts that date back over 7,000 years ago, give proof that primitive accounting techniques were used to record the growth of crops and herds on clay tablets. The Roman Empire kept records of cash, commodities, and transactions on papyrus rather than clay because it allowed more detail to be kept. “The Great Roll of the Exchequer” which is also called the “Pipe Roll” was kept during the Medieval Times and provided an annual description of rents, fines and taxes due to the King of England. Although these practices are not reflected in modern day accounting, it definitely contributed to the need for detailed records for various transactions. Widely acknowledged to be the...
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...University of Wollongong Research Online Faculty of Business - Accounting & Finance Working Papers 2006 Faculty of Business The Critique of Accounting Theory M. Gaffikin University of Wollongong, gaffikin@uow.edu.au Publication Details This working paper was originally published as Gaffikin, M, The Critique of Accounting Theory, Accounting & Finance Working Paper 06/25, School of Accounting & Finance, University of Wollongong, 2006. Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: research-pubs@uow.edu.au 06/25 University of Wollongong School of Accounting & Finance The Critique of Accounting Theory Working Papers Series Michael Gaffikin School of Accounting & Finance University of Wollongong Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia Tel +61 (2) 4221 3718 Fax +61 (2) 4221 4297 eMail george@uow.edu.au www.uow.edu.au/commerce/accy/ The Critique of Accounting Theory Michael Gaffikin* School of Accounting and Finance, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522 In previous papers (Gaffikin 2005a, 2005b, 2005c, 2006) the discussion has examined accounting as a science, with attempts to employ a scientific methodology; as a purely technical expression of economic theory, heavily dominated by research in finance; and as part of “law”, albeit law (regulation) heavily influenced by dominant economic and political ideology. That discussion revealed that all these perspectives...
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...14th Century The history of accounting dates back to ancient civilisations, however the birth of double-entry bookkeeping in the 14th century is seen as being the beginning of the modern accounting period. The Renaissance period in Italy (14th to 16th century) saw many major developments in accounting practice. At this time, Arabic numerals were first used to keep records of business transactions in place of Roman numerals, and record keeping developed on a large scale. Bookkeeping had to develop to keep track of the assets and profits of many distinct trading ventures at different stages of completion. In 1657, the company ruled that stock was to be valued, and four years later the governor of the company stated that “future distributions would consist of the profits earned (dividends) and not “divisions” as in the past”. Many guides for investors and accountants were written during this development period. Examples include Stock Exchange Accounts; with an appendix of forms which details stock exchange bookkeeping, Haight and Freese Co’s Guide to Investors which lists the stock prices for various companies between 1890-1900 18th Century Josiah Wedgwood, the founder of famous pottery manufacturer Wedgwood is considered by many to be a pioneer in cost accountancy. After examining business accounts, Josiah Wedgwood discovered that his head clerk had been embezzling from the company 19th Century The early evolution of accounting was dominated by advances in...
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...of Job Vacancy in your Companies I would like to propose my candidacy for your position of audit executive which was advertised in 2015. I am enthusiastically applying for this post because I firmly believe that a combination of my natural ability, technical expertise and some work experience make me an ideal candidate for this role. I am currently pursuing Degree in Accountancy (Honors) at Uitm Shah Alam. I will be graduate in the early of September as this will be my last semester. During my times in the University, I gain a lot of experiences and knowledges related to the field I studied. During my internship period, I was given a task to deal with a lot of client to complete my job. Besides that, I have a very strong basic on accounting knowledge as it was my main stream on this 4 years of study. Besides academic, I am also actives in co-curricular activity. I have being joining many sports tournament which helps me a lot in improving my confidence and lead to a healthy life. Other than sports, I am also like to travel to many interesting places. This show how I am willing to travel if I was given a job that need me to travel to other places. Details of my achievements and accomplishments can be found in my attached resume. I am available for interview at any time. Thank you for the time you have taken to consider my application, and I eagerly look forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely Muhammad Shahzwan Bin...
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...Del mundo real de aplicaciones Macroeconomía se suele utilizar para determinar la salud de la economía de una nación mediante la comparación del PIB de un país y su producción total o gastos. El PIB es el valor total de todos los bienes y servicios finales producidos legalmente en una economía en un período de tiempo determinado. Así, una región se considera de mejor salud cuando la proporción del PIB a gastos es mayor, lo que significa en términos laicos que una nación está trayendo más de lo que pone. Otra medida utilizada es el PIB per cápita, que es una medida del valor de todos los bienes y servicios, dividido por el número de participantes en una economía. Esto se utiliza para determinar el nivel de vida y el grado de desarrollo económico de un país, donde un mejor nivel de vida y un mayor desarrollo económico vendrá a medida que más personas tienen un mayor valor de producción total. Por ejemplo, los EE.UU. y China tienen un PIB global similar, pero los EE.UU. tiene un mucho mejor el PIB per cápita, debido a sus muchos menos participantes económicos, lo que refleja el alto nivel de vida en los EE.UU. Macroeconomía también se utiliza para desarrollar estrategias de mejora económica a nivel nacional y mundial. Microeconomía se utiliza para determinar el mejor tipo de opciones que una entidad puede hacer para obtener el máximo beneficio, sin importar el tipo de mercado o arena que está involucrado en. Microeconomía también puede ser considerado una herramienta para la...
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...Development in Accounting Theory * General Scientific Period (1800-1955) * Normative Period (1957-1970) * Positive Era (1970s) * Behavioral Research (1980s) Evolution of Double-Entry Book Keeping * Early History of Accounting * 4500-3600 BC -Chaldean Babylonion -Assyrian and Sumerian Egyptian -Chinese( Chao Dynasty) -Greek -Roman * 11th to 13th century -Italian Renaissance * Luca Pacioli’s Contribution * Introduction of double-entry book keeping, Dr and Cr were used for entries to secure double entry. * Three book are used: -memorandum -journal -ledger * Development of double entry * 16th Century: a few changes are made in the book-keeping techniques. * 17th Century: separate inventory accountant for different types of goods. * 18th Century: Three methods of treating fixed assets * 19th Century: depreciating property was accounted for unsold merchandise 4 reasons generally advance to explain the role of double-entry in the economic expansion: * Double-entry contributed to a new attitude toward economic life. * The acquisition was aided and propelled by systematic organisation. * It permits a separation of ownership and promotes the growth of the large joint stock company. * The new rationalism was further and enhance by systematic organization. Capitalism and Accounting * the linked between accounting and capitalism become known as the Sambart thesis or argument that the tranformstion...
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...More Than a Numbers Game A Brief Histor y of Accounting Thomas A. King John Wiley & Sons, Inc. More Than a Numbers Game More Than a Numbers Game A Brief Histor y of Accounting Thomas A. King John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2006 by Thomas A. King. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability...
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...The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) became law in 2002 after the discovery of significant fraudulent activity on the part of officers of several corporations (Enron, WorldCom, Adelphia, etc.). The goal of the law was to stem the tide of continuing fraudulent behavior, tighten governance and make it more costly for individuals if they were involved in frauds. Unfortunately, the goals were not achieved, and the spate of significant frauds continued with frauds involving major banks and corporations (HealthSouth, Lehman Brothers, AIG, Madoff Securities, etc.). These frauds took place which has led to the additional passage of the Dodd- Frank Act in 2010. The passage of SOX and the Dobbs-Frank Act points to the inability of laws and regulations, by themselves, to prevent fraudulent behavior. Do you think “maintaining a culture that emphasizes ethics and compliance” is enough to prevent fraud? Do we need to focus on the dangers of unbridled greed and on inventing fancy investment instruments that few people understand but many people trade since no one wants to be left behind in the often believed unlimited profit potential of the markets? Title II of SOX consists of nine sections that establish standards for external auditor independence. The goal of Title II of SOX is to restrict auditing companies from providing non-audit services (e.g., consulting services) for the same clients in which they audit. In the article “The Case of Phar-Mor Inc.” the author Williams, S. Lansing...
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...000 – Computer science, information, and general works • 000 Generalities • 001 Knowledge • 002 The book • 003 Systems • 004 Data processing and Computer science • 005 Computer programming, programs, data • 006 Special computer methods • 007 Not assigned or no longer used • 008 Not assigned or no longer used • 009 Not assigned or no longer used • 010 Bibliography • 011 Bibliographies • 012 Bibliographies of individuals • 013 Bibliographies of works by specific classes of authors • 014 Bibliographies of anonymous and pseudonymous works • 015 Bibliographies of works from specific places • 016 Bibliographies of works from specific subjects • 017 General subject catalogs • 018 Catalogs arranged by author & date • 019 Dictionary catalogs • 020 Library & information sciences • 021 Library relationships • 022 Administration of the physical plant • 023 Personnel administration • 024 Not assigned or no longer used • 025 Library operations • 026 Libraries for specific subjects • 027 General libraries • 028 Reading, use of other information media • 029 Not assigned or no longer used • 030 General encyclopedic works • 031 General encyclopedic works -- American • 032 General encyclopedic works in English • 033 General encyclopedic works in other Germanic languages • 034 General encyclopedic works in French, Provencal...
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...MODULE C – History and Memory Sample 1 How has your understanding of events, personalities or situations been shaped by their representations in the texts you have studied. Refer to your prescribed text and at least TWO other related texts of your own choosing. History can be defined as “the methodical record of public events” where memory is defined as “the faculty by which events are recalled or kept in mind”. Thus history and memory interrelate as history can be seen as the contextual justification for memory. “The Fiftieth Gate” is a poignant interweaving of history and memory. The text follows protagonist, Mark Baker an historian, son of Holocaust survivors Genia and Yossl (Joe), on an historical journey through memory, to uncover the origins of his past and act as a catalyst for future generations to also connect with their history. Mark Baker’s journey through history and memory is also executed through his conventional ideas that memory is biased and less valid than history. There are numerous references to the discrepancies between the personal memories of his parents and the documented history Mark as an historian believes. In this way it is apparent that Mark is on a quest for verification, “my facts from the past are different”. This displays the flaw Mark traditionally notes in memory and his need for historical evidence. As responders accompany Mark on his journey, they also encounter the complexity of simultaneously being a son and an historian. This...
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...Historiography It is the study of the history and methodology of the discipline of history. The term historiography also denotes a body of historical work on a specialized topic. Scholars discuss historiography topically – such as the “historiography of Catholicism,” the “historiography of early Islam,” or the “historiography of China" – as well as specific approaches such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, at the ascent of academic history, a corpus of historiography literature developed. Furay and Salevouris (1988) define historiography as "the study of the way history has been and is written — the history of historical writing... When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians." Questions studied Some of the common questions of historiography are: 1. Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text. (See also source criticism). 2. Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, for example Marxist, Annales School, "total history", or political history. The historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis, evaluation, and examination of authentic primary source materials and the organization of these sources into...
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...() from other countries. Therefore in terms of America’s identity historically, politically, economically and socially, these should be understood differently because America was created differently. Hence why the idea of American exceptionalism’ stems from the principle of America being unique. Furthermore, In addition to this the idea that “American exceptionalism” implies superiority is a key concept to embrace and identify through out America history, contemporary politics, foreign policy and social culture. However, due to the essay title I will be analyzing and examining to what extent is “American exceptionalism’ identified as U.S superiority. Although due to the wide context of the theoretical term ‘American exceptionalism’’ and word limit. I will focus on the significant impacts that has led to the idea of ‘American exceptionalism’ to be implied as U.S superiority such as American history, foreign policy, economic and social culture. History Explaination The significant impact of America’s revolutionary history sparked an inspirational movement of independency to pervious colonized nations although on a later stages for them. This highlights America as exceptional historically in being “the first new nation” () to become independent and also being the ideology for independency for previous colonies nations. To an extent on this note “American exceptionalism” in terms of it’s revolutionary independency can be amplified as a model to other nations than...
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