bs_bs_banner

Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

The changing face of aggression: the effect of personalized avatars in a violent video game on levels of aggressive behavior
Jack Hollingdale1, Tobias Greitemeyer2
1
2

University of Sussex, UK
University of Innsbruck, Austria

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jack Hollingdale, University of
Sussex, Pevensey Building, Brighton, BN1 9RH,
UK. E-mail: j.hollingdale@sussex.ac.uk doi: 10.1111/jasp.12148

Abstract
Video game developments allow players to design their own personalized avatars.
Previous research has shown that this capability increases levels of aggression within socially acceptable forms of violence. Using the general aggression model (GAM), the current study examined the effect of avatar personalization on behavioral aggression within a violent video game. Participants who played a violent video game and designed their own avatars were significantly more aggressive than those who played the same violent video game with a generic avatar, and were also more aggressive than those who played the nonviolent video game, regardless of whether or not they designed their own personalized characters. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Games present opportunities to behave in ways that are exhilaratingly wicked and dangerous—out of reach in real life. Freedom from consequences, and hence a feeling of escaping, is appreciated most keenly where there is violence. (British Board of Film Classification
[BBFC], 2010)
Research and anecdotal evidence supports the notion that playing violent video games increases levels of cognitive, affective, and behavioral aggression and decreases levels of prosocial behavior (Anderson & Carnagey, 2009;
Anderson & Dill, 2000; Carnagey & Anderson, 2004;
Greitemeyer & McLatchie, 2011; for a recent meta-analysis, see Anderson et al., 2010). These effects occur both in the short term (Anderson & Ford, 1986) and in the long term
(Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007). It has also been demonstrated that exposure to violent forms of media can lead to individuals having a distorted perception of a more violent world and can lead to a more hostile view of the world (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Signorielli, 1990). Studies have also found that exposure to violent video games correlates negatively with helping behaviors in the real world and, as a result, exposure to violent video games poses a public health threat to children and youth (Anderson &
Bushman, 2001).
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The general aggression model and violent video games
Previous research into the effects of media violence and violent video games on levels of aggression has been explained using the general aggression model (GAM;
Anderson & Bushman, 2002). The GAM posits that situational input variables influence components of the individual’s present internal state; these components being cognition, affect, and arousal (Anderson, 1997; Anderson &
Bushman, 2001, 2002; Kirsh, Olczak, & Mounts, 2005). The activation of one of these “routes” generally produces activation of the others (Anderson & Bushman, 2001).
Video games that reward violent actions can directly increase aggressive behavior in the short term by increasing hostile emotions or aggressive thinking (Carnagey &
Anderson, 2005). Short-term exposure to violent video games, therefore, increases aggression through priming aggressive cognitions, increasing arousal, and creating an aggressive affective state (Anderson & Bushman, 2001).
Lindsay and Anderson (2000) demonstrated the impact of cognitive priming effects on aggression by showing that pain only increased aggression when aggressive thoughts were made highly accessible; in this case, after viewing pictures of guns.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

Hollingdale and Greitemeyer

Over time, and with prolonged exposure, these knowledge structures can become automated. Aggressive scripts are thus more readily accessible and more readily activated, and have the potential to change the individual’s personality and attitudes toward a topic (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Carnagey &
Anderson, 2007). Anderson and Dill suggested that the interactional elements of choice and action within video games can lead to a more complete aggressive script than other more passive forms of media. This development of aggressive scripts can be exacerbated by a greater sense of engagement within the content of a violent game (Funk, 2003). Content of video games, violent and nonviolent, can affect the routes of the GAM, and violent content is specifically tied to the cognitive route (Anderson & Bushman, 2001).

Video game content and personalized avatars
Games enable players to do things they could not, or would not, do in real life; they play at being people they are not. (BBFC, 2010)
Content plays a significant role in the effects of violent video games on levels of aggression. The violent content of video games, regardless of the competitive nature (Anderson &
Carnagey, 2009) or graphically enhanced details (Barlett,
Rodeheffer, Baldassaro, Hinkin, & Harris, 2008), is enough to increase levels of aggression. The content (e.g., storyline, role of the avatar) can prime the players’ negative thoughts and influence their levels of aggression. Players who play a stereotypically evil character may adopt aggressive intentions and attitudes and demonstrate less group cohesion and report more aggressive-themed stories (Peña, Hancock, & Merola,
2009) than they do when playing with a stereotypically good character. Characters make up a significant element of the content of video games.These characters impact a player’s susceptibility to the negative effects of violent video games, and thus potentially increase the effects on levels of aggression.
Previous research has recognized that identification with a media character can enhance the media effects (Leyens &
Picus, 1973). Individuals who claimed to be more involved within a bloody video game reported greater hostility and physically aggressive intentions (Farrar, Kercmar, & Nowak,
2006). Personally designed avatars can serve as surrogate identities, allowing them to transcend the limitations that they experience in the real world (Biocca, 1997). Personalizing avatars increases the connection between the players and the avatars by representing their physical characteristics or ideal self (Eastin, 2006). This heightened sense of identification and the ability to control the actions and manipulate their virtual worlds can increase players’ interpersonal connection with the avatars (Rubin & McHugh, 1987). Video game players who are given the opportunity will design avatars more like their ideal selves and will attribute more
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

1863

favorable attributes to those characters than their own
(Bessière, Seay, & Kiesler, 2007). Those who create an ideal self report a greater perceived interactivity and connection to their virtual personas (Jin, 2009), and this identification with violent video game characters has been shown to make players more aggressive (Fischer, Kastenmüller, &
Greitemeyer, 2010; Konijn, Bijvank, & Bushman, 2007). The current study attempted to further previous research in this field and to consider what effect personalizing one’s avatar would have on levels of aggression after playing a violent video game.

The current research
In the current study, participants played either a violent or a neutral video game. About half of the participants were asked to customize their game characters, while the remaining participants played with generic game characters. Afterward, aggressive behavior was measured. We expected to replicate the typical violent video game effect in that playing a violent, relative to a neutral, video game increases aggressive behavior.
More importantly, we anticipated that the effect of playing a violent video game on aggressive behavior would be further exacerbated when using a personalized avatar. In contrast, when playing a neutral video game, aggressive behavior should be unaffected by whether a personalized character or a generic game character is used.
We reasoned that playing with a personalized game character would increase players’ identification with their game characters, which, in combination with violent video game content, would evoke increased aggressive behavior. Note, however, that we abstained from measuring identification with one’s game character. Previous research into the effects of violent video games (Lindsay & Anderson, 2000) has shown that measuring possible mediators changes subsequent measures of aggressive behavior.

Method
Participants and design
Study participants were 130 students (77 women, 53 men; age range = 18–39 years; M = 21.5 years, SD = 3.9) from the University of Sussex who participated in the study in exchange for course credits or payment. The participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions, with 37 in the violent personalized condition, 36 in the violent generic condition, 29 in the neutral personalized condition, and 28 in the neutral generic condition. All participants completed every part of the study with none admitting to knowing the true nature of the study; as such, no data were excluded from the analysis. All participants were tested individually in a laboratory setting with each session lasting approximately
45 min.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

1864

Materials and procedure
The participants were initially welcomed by the experimenter and were asked to complete the consent form. They were then advised that they would be taking part in two unrelated marketing surveys that had been combined for the economy of time. The first would consider their views and impressions of a video game, while the second would be a marketing survey of a new recipe for a well known supermarket’s own brand of hot chili sauce.
The first task involved playing a video game for 30 min
(Barlett, Harris, & Baldassaro, 2007). Participants in the violent video game condition were introduced to a Playstation 3 and a copy of Saints Row 2, which was selected for three reasons. First, Saints Row 2 was selected for its comprehensive customization tools to design the main protagonist. Second, it was selected for its simplistic control design in comparison to other violent video games currently on the market to benefit less experienced video game players. Finally, it was chosen for its “strong violence and criminal themes,” for which it possesses a Certificate 18 (BBFC, 2008). Those in the neutral video game condition were presented with a standard desktop PC and a copy of Pop Life, Certificate 3+, which classifies that the content of the game is suitable for all age groups
(Pan European Game Information [PEGI], 2010). Players have the opportunity to design their own“pop stars” and then progress the main character through his or her pop career.
Both computer games use a third-person perspective, allowing the player to see his or her character fully throughout play.
Participants who were assigned to personalized conditions were given 7 min to customize their characters. No restriction was placed on whether they created a realistic or idealized representation of themselves. Those in the generic character conditions were asked to familiarize themselves with the buttons and controller for 7 min while the experimenter was preparing the materials for the surveys. After the allotted
7 min, participants were asked to begin playing. All participants, regardless of condition or previous gaming experience, were told to complete the tutorial in order to familiarize themselves with the controls for the game and to continue to play for a total of 30 min. Players were advised that they should play the games to the best of their ability, but their specific progress and achievements would not be recorded. After the 30-min time period had elapsed, the experimenter stopped play. Identical questionnaires were then uploaded onto a standard desktop PC for completion.
The Video Game Rating Sheet (Anderson & Ford, 1986) places all items on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(easy, less enjoyable, not frustrating, not exciting, slow action, no violent content, no violent graphics) to 7 (difficult, enjoyable, frustrating, exciting, hectic action, very violent content, very violent graphics). Both violent items were highly correlated
(r = .92) and thus were combined in an overall violent
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Changing the face of aggression

content scale. We also measured participants’ moods by asking the participants how they felt at the moment, on a scale ranging from -10 (very unpleasant) to +10 (very pleasant).
The use of this one-item measure was adapted from previous studies on affective forecasting (e.g., Greitemeyer, 2009).
After the participants completed the questionnaire, the next step was the same for all four conditions. Participants were advised that the computer game marketing survey was complete and that they would now be asked to take part in the second marketing survey.
The final part of the experiment was described as an unrelated marketing survey. Previously used in other studies
(McGregor et al., 1998) to test behavioral aggression, the participants were informed that hot and sweet chili sauces were being taste-tested; and on their experimental day, it was the hot chili sauce that was being tested. They learned that the taste tester/marker “couldn’t stand hot chili sauce,” but was taking part in the marketing survey because of a good payment. The experimenter asked the participant to administer the sauce because the experimenter had to be blind for the experimental condition. The participants were then shown a bottle of a leading supermarket brand of hot chili sauce, a clean spoon, and a dish. As a result of ethical reasons (e.g., possible allergic reactions), we did not ask our participants to taste the sauce. However, it was clearly labeled on the bottle that the sauce was very hot (depicting 3 out of 3 chilies for hotness). The amount of chili sauce administered was weighed after the participant had completed the experiment.
The participants were not advised to use the spoon, only that the taste tester/marker would have to consume the entirety of the container, and it was up to them to decide how much they wished to administer. Anonymity of their actions was assured. Finally, all participants were debriefed fully as to the nature of the experiment, and any questions regarding the experiment were answered. They were then paid or allocated credits and thanked for their time.

Results
Video game rating sheet and mood
The means and standard deviations of all measures are presented in Table 1. Inasmuch as there were no significant effects for avatar personalization and its interaction with type of video game, only ratings as a function of type of video game are presented.1 Zero-order correlations for the study variables are reported in Table 2.
Most importantly, the participants perceived the content of the violent video game to be more violent than did those in the neutral video game condition. Thus, the manipulation of
1

The full analysis is available from the first author upon request.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

Hollingdale and Greitemeyer

Table 1

1865

Mean Ratings of Video Game Ratings and Mood Properties as a Function of Type of Video Game
Violent video game

Neutral video game

M
Perceived violence
Perceived difficulty
Enjoyment
Frustration
Excitement
Action was fast
Mood

SD

M

SD

F(1, 126)

h2

4.12
2.95
3.60
2.48
3.34
3.79
3.10

1.30
1.73
1.58
1.85
1.66
1.29
5.00

0.15
1.47
2.33
2.58
1.30
1.21
-0.84

0.38
1.59
1.63
1.80
1.35
1.26
6.43

492.34***
24.38***
19.94***
0.10
56.14***
130.02***
15.63***

.80
.16
.14
.00
.31
.51
.11

***p < .001.

Table 2

Intercorrelations Among Study Variables

Variable

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

—
.39**
.39**
-.05
.57**
.71**
.16
.24**

—
.09
.43**
.28**
.37**
-.00
.07

—
-.27**
.71**
.53**
.16
.11

—
-.12
-.10
-.19*
-.05

—
.72**
.20*
.23**

—
.26**
.22*

—
-.16

Perceived violence
Perceived difficulty
Enjoyment
Frustration
Excitement
Action was fast
Mood
Chili sauce

*p < .05. **p < .01.

type of video game was successful. Moreover, there were significant effects for the other game ratings as well. Participants in the violent video game condition reported the game as significantly more difficult, more enjoyable, and more exciting and that the action was faster. In contrast, no differences across conditions were observed for perceived frustration.
Moreover, participants who played a violent video game reported being in a better mood than did those participants who played a neutral game. As noted, neither avatar personalization nor the interaction between avatar personalization and type of video game affected any of the video game ratings or participants’ mood. Thus, any effects of avatar personalization on aggressive behavior are unlikely to be a result of these game characteristics.

Chili sauce paradigm
When testing a priori predictions, overall ANOVAs failed to provide an adequate statistical test of possible mean differences across conditions (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1985; Steiger,
2004). Instead, it has been suggested using planned comparisons that answer specific research questions. Thus, when examining whether playing violent video games with a personalized avatar is associated with increased aggressive behavior, planned contrasts are reported. In fact, participants who played a violent video game and designed their own avatars (M = 21.35, SD = 25.19) administered more hot chili sauce than did those in the other three experimental condi© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

tions (M = 9.11, SD = 11.08), t(126) = 3.83, p < .001. Moreover, participants who played a violent video game and designed their own avatars administered more hot chili sauce than did those who played the same violent video game and used a generic character (M = 8.51, SD = 10.90), t(126) = 3.35, p < .01. In contrast, there was no significant difference in the amount of chili sauce administered between participants who played the neutral video game having designed their own personalized avatars (M = 11.19, SD
=13.83) or having used a generic computer agent (M = 7.20,
SD = 6.20), t(126) = 1.02, p = .31.
We also replicated the typical violent video game effect in that participants who played a violent video game administered significantly more hot chili sauce (M = 14.21,
SD = 19.13) than did those who played a neutral video game
(M = 9.03, SD = 11.03), t(126) = 2.10, p < .05. Finally, when controlling for participant sex, gender, and mood, as well as ratings of perceived difficulty, enjoyment, frustration, excitement, and how fast the action was perceived to be, the main contrast comparing the violent video game/personalized avatar condition with the other three conditions still significantly affected the amount of chili sauce administered, b = .30, t(126) = 3.41, p < .01.

Discussion
The present study investigated the effects of personalizing an avatar within a violent video game context on levels
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

1866

of behavioral aggression. Our study replicated the typical violent video game effect: Participants who played a violent video game administered more chili sauce than did those who played a neutral video game. More importantly, when playing the violent video game with a personalized avatar, the amount of chili sauce administered was considerably increased. This effect remained significant, even when we controlled for perceived difficulty, enjoyment, frustration, excitement, and how fast the action of the game was perceived to be. It was also not a result of the participants’ sex, age, and mood. In contrast, chili sauce administered by individuals who played a neutral video game was not affected by whether or not they designed their own avatars.
Gentile and colleagues (Gentile, 2011; Gentile et al., 2009;
Gentile & Stone, 2005) argued that there are five dimensions of video game play; each is assumed to have specific effects: amount, content, context, structure, and mechanics. Most previous research has focused on the effects of video game content, whereas little research has addressed the other dimensions. We found (as have many researchers before us) that the content of the video game matters in that a violent— relative to a neutral—video game increases aggressive behavior. However, the current study also focused on the structure of the game (whether playing with a personalized avatar or a generic character) and the interplay between game content and structure. Our findings suggest that the effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior are exacerbated when the game structure (i.e., playing with a personalized avatar) increases similarity to reality, which is assumed to foster learning and transfer (Gentile & Stone, 2005). It is noteworthy that game structure affected aggressive outcomes when playing a violent video game, but not when playing a neutral video game. Thus, the combination of video game content and structure amplifies the effects of playing video games on aggressive behavior.
An important limitation of the current study is that we did not address why avatar customization exacerbates the effects of playing violent video games on aggressive behavior. As noted in the introduction, we suspect that personalization increases character identification, which, in turn, is known to be associated with increased aggression after playing violent video games (Fischer et al., 2010;
Konijn et al., 2007). The current study aimed to document the effects of video game content and avatar customization on aggressive behavior, without measuring possible mediators that may change the measure of aggressive behavior
(cf. Lindsay & Anderson, 2000). Thus, future research should examine whether, indeed, personalization increases character identification, which, in turn, increases aggressive behavior. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Changing the face of aggression

Note also that we did not check whether our participants did, in fact, succeed in making avatars that looked like them.
In a previous study on the effects of body-emphasizing video games on body-image effects (Barlett & Harris, 2008), participants were asked to create game characters that most resembled themselves. Coding of a research assistant revealed that most participants were able to create characters that looked like them. Thus, we are relatively confident that our participants were also able to do so. Nevertheless, this should be addressed in future research.
A methodological limitation to the current study is the use of two types of console. Although previous work has shown that content is more important than graphics (Barlett et al.,
2008), there may have been some differences in the personalization capabilities between the PC and the Playstation 3. The
Playstation 3 also offers more advanced control capability over the characters, compared to the PC platform game. Note also that because we used only one violent video game and one neutral video game, our findings might be a result of specific features of the particular games used. Future research in which the effects of other violent and neutral video games on aggressive behavior are examined would help to draw more general conclusions.
Future research should aim to further support the impact of personalized avatars on increased levels of aggression within violent video games. Longitudinal studies of violent video games could examine in more detail the effect of personalization of gaming characters and what long-term changes may occur to individuals’ mental models that increase accessibility to aggressive scripts and subsequent aggressive behavior.
Future studies may also document that the possibility of creating personalized avatars does not only exacerbate negative effects of violent games on aggression, it may also intensify positive effects of video game exposure. For instance, recent research has shown that playing prosocial video games increases prosocial behavior (Gentile et al.,
2009; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2010) and prosocial affect
(Greitemeyer, Osswald, & Brauer, 2010), and decreases aggressive cognitions (Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2009) and aggressive behavior (Greitemeyer, Agthe, Turner, &
Gschwendtner, 2012). It may well be that using personalized avatars further increases these effects of prosocial video game exposure.
In conclusion, this study identified that the personalization of avatars increases levels of behavioral aggression within violent video games. Given the popularity and growth of this violent genre, concerns should be raised by governing bodies and parents regarding the increases in aggression as a direct result of personalization capabilities within violent video games. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

Hollingdale and Greitemeyer

References
Anderson, C. A. (1997). Effects of violent movies on trait hostility, hostile feelings, and aggressive thoughts. Aggressive
Behavior, 23, 161–178.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001).
Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353–359.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002).
Human aggression. Annual Review of
Psychology, 53, 27–51.
Anderson, C. A., & Carnagey, N. L. (2009).
Causal effects of violent sports video games on aggression: Is it competitiveness or violent content? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 731–739.
Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and life.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772–790.
Anderson, C. A., & Ford, C. M. (1986).
Affect of the game player: Short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 390–402.
Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley,
K. E. (2007). Violent video game effect on children and adolescents. Theory, research, and public policy. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N.,
Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto,
A., et al. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and
Western countries. Psychological Bulletin,
136, 151–173.
Barlett, C. P., & Harris, R. J. (2008). The impact of body emphasizing video games on body image concerns in men and women. Sex Roles, 59, 586–601.
Barlett, C. P., Harris, R. J., & Baldassaro, R.
(2007). The longer you play, the more hostile you feel: Examination of first person shooter video games and aggression during video game play. Aggressive
Behavior, 33, 486–497.
Barlett, C., Rodeheffer, C. D., Baldassaro, R.,
Hinkin, M. P., & Harris, R. J. (2008). The
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

1867

effect of advances in video game technology and content on aggressive cognitions, hostility, and heart rate. Media
Psychology, 11, 540–565.
Bessière, K., Seay, A. F., & Kiesler, S. (2007).
The ideal elf: Identity exploration in
World of Warcraft. CyberPsychology, 10,
530–535.
Biocca, F. (1997). The cyborg’s dilemma:
Progressive embodiment in virtual environments. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication [online serial],
3. Retrieved April 14, 2011, from http:// www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol3/issue2/ biocca2.html
British Board of Film Classification. (2008).
Classification information for Saints
Row 2 [online]. Retrieved November
5, 2010, from http://www.bbfc.co.uk/
ADM251383
British Board of Film Classification. (2010,
August 2). Video games: Research to improve understanding of what players understand about video games, and to explain their preferences for particular games. Retrieved April, 8, 2011, from http://www.bbfc.co.uk/download/ policy-and-research/BBFC%20Video
%20Games%20Report.pdf
Carnagey, N. L., & Anderson, C. A. (2004).
Violent video game exposure and aggression. A literature review. Minerva Psichiatrica, 45, 1–18.
Carnagey, N. L., & Anderson, C. A. (2005).
The effects of reward and punishment in violent video games on aggressive affect, cognition, and behavior. American Psychological Science, 16, 882–889.
Carnagey, N. L., & Anderson C. A. (2007).
Changes in attitudes towards war and violence after September 11, 2001.
Aggressive Behavior, 33, 118–129.
Eastin, M. S. (2006). Video game violence and the female game player: Self- and opponent gender effects on presence and aggressive thoughts. Human Communication Research, 32, 351–372.
Farrar, K. M., Kercmar, M., & Nowak, K. L.
(2006). Contextual features of violent video games, mental models, and aggression. Journal of Communication, 56, 387–
405.
Fischer, P., Kastenmüller, A., & Greitemeyer, T. (2010). Media violence and the self: The impact of personalized gaming

characters in aggressive video games on aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 192–195.
Funk, J. B. (2003). Violent video games:
Who’s at risk? In D. Ravitch & J. Viteritti
(Eds.), Kid stuff: Marketing violence and vulgarity in the popular culture (pp. 168–
192). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Gentile, D. A. (2011). The multiple dimensions of video game effects. Child Development Perspectives, 5, 75–81.
Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S.,
Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., et al.
(2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, longitudinal, and experimental studies.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 752–763.
Gentile, D. A., & Stone, W. (2005). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: A review of the literature.
Minerva Pediatrica, 57, 337–358.
Greitemeyer, T. (2009). The effect of anticipated affect on persistence and performance. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 35, 172–186.
Greitemeyer, T., Agthe, M., Turner, R., &
Gschwendtner, C. (2012). Acting prosocially reduces retaliation: Effects of prosocial video games on aggressive behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 235–242.
Greitemeyer, T., & McLatchie, N. (2011).
Denying humanness to others: A newly discovered mechanism by which violent video games increase aggressive behavior. Psychological Science, 22,
659–665.
Greitemeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2009).
Prosocial video games reduce aggressive cognitions. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 45, 896–900.
Greitemeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2010).
Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 211–221.
Greitemeyer, T., Osswald, S., & Brauer, M.
(2010). Playing prosocial video games increases empathy and decreases schadenfreude. Emotion, 6, 796–802.
Jin, S-A. A. (2009). Avatars mirroring the actual self versus projecting the ideal self: The effects of self-priming on

Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

1868

interactivity and immersion in an exergame, Wii Fit. CyberPsychology, 12, 761–
765.
Kirsh, S. J., Olczak, P. V., & Mounts, J. R. W.
(2005). Violent video games induce an affect processing bias. Media Psychology,
7, 239–250.
Konijn, E. A., Bijvank, M. N., & Bushman, B.
J. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1038–1044.
Leyens, J. P., & Picus, S. (1973). Identification with the winner of a fight and name mediation: Their differential effects upon subsequent aggressive behavior.
British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, 374–377.
Lindsay, J. J., & Anderson, C. A.
(2000). From antecedent conditions to

© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Changing the face of aggression

violent actions: A general affective aggression model. Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 533–
547.
McGregor, H. A., Lieberman, J. D., Greenberg, J., Soloman, S., Arndt, J., Simon, L. et al. (1998). Terror management and aggression: Evidence that mortality salience motivates aggression against worldview threatening others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74,
590–605.
Pan European Game Information (PEGI).
(2010). What do the labels mean?
[online]. Retrieved November 5, 2010, from http://www.pegi.info/en/index/id/
33/
Peña, J., Hancock, J. T., & Merola, N. A.
(2009). The priming effects of avatars in virtual settings. Communication
Research, 36, 838–856.

Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1985). Contrast analysis: Focused comparisons in the analysis of variance. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, R. B., & McHugh M. P. (1987).
Development of parasocial interaction relationships. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 31, 279–
292.
Signorielli, N. (1990). Television’s mean and dangerous world: A continuation of the cultural indicators perspective. In N.
Signorielli & M. Morgan (Eds.), Cultivation analysis: New directions in media effects research (pp. 85–106). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Steiger, J. H. (2004). Beyond the F test:
Effect size confidence intervals and tests of close fit in the analysis of variance and contrast analysis. Psychological Methods,
9, 164–182.

Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 1862–1868

Copyright of Journal of Applied Social Psychology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.