...Agricultural Extension in India Booklet No. 380 Agricultural Extension Education: AEES-4 Content Preface I. Introduction II. Pre-Independence Era III. Post-Independence Era IV. Motivation V. Extension Methodology in India VI. Training of Extension Personnel VII. Extension Organization in India VIII. Extension and Women IX. Extension and Rural Youth X. Emerging Thoughts in Extension Preface Agricultural extension is an educational process which has its goal to help the rural people to build a better life by conveying the useful and needed information at appropriate time. It is essential for agricultural development. It plays a major part in technology transfer to the rural areas. Though the concept of agricultural extension started in early 16th century but the actual functioning started only after the second world war. Dr. K. T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environmental Education I. Introduction Agricultural extension is a branch of agriculture which assists the farmers to bring about continuous improvement in their physical, economic and social well being through individual and cooperative efforts. In other words, it helps in the development of an individual and the village community as a whole. It makes available to the farming community the scientific and technical information, training and guidance to solve the problems in agriculture including animal husbandry, gardening, horticulture, silviculture, agricultmal engineering...
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...WHO REALLY BENEFITS FROM AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIES? EVIDENCE FROM FIELD-‐LEVEL DATA Barrett Kirwan University of Maryland Michael J. Roberts North Carolina State University February 2010 [Preliminary and Incomplete] ABSTRACT The idea that agricultural subsidies are fully capitalized into farmland values forms the foundation of the argument that subsidies are entitlements and removing them would drastically reduce farmland asset values. Surprisingly little evidence substantiates this claim. Using field-‐level data and explicitly controlling for potentially confounding variables we find that landlords only capture between 14 – 24 cents of the marginal subsidy dollar. The duration of the rental arrangement has a substantial effect on the incidence. Initially, landlords extract 44 cents of the marginal subsidy dollar, but the incidence falls by 1.5 cents with each additional year of ...
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...CHAPTER FOUR METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY This chapter is devoted to explaining the methodological approach to this thesis. Section 3.1 deals with the model specification as was used in (Mundlak, Larson & Butzer 1997)with a bit of modification. Section 3.2 examines the approach used in applying the model to statistical problem. Data used in estimating the model, the description of variables used as well as their sources are discussed in section 3.3. 3.1 THE EMPRICAL MODEL The point of departure in relation to this issue is that producers (that is countries in this case) are faced with a lot of options when taking a decision on the techniques needed in production. That is, the problem of how to produce. This fact put forward a choice of the combination of inputs and outputs. Given: x = the vector of all inputs Fj = the production function of the jth technique T = a technology set comprising of all possible techniques That is, T= {Fj(x); j=1, …, j} In a case where countries choose the methods used in relation to their constraints, constrained (k) and unconstrained (v) inputs can be differentiated. Therefore, x = (k, v) with the assumption that they do not possess an alternative cost. This leads to a Lagrangian optimization problem where the goal of the producer at this stage is to decide the method suitable with the right level of inputs in other to maximize profit. The Lagrangian equation becomes; L = ∑ pj Fj (vj, kj)...
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...Prof. Shakhashiri www.scifun.org Chemistry 103-1 AGRICULTURAL FERTILIZERS: NITROGEN, POTASSIUM, AND PHOSPHORUS Anyone who has grown a garden, maintained a lawn, or kept house plants knows that it is necessary to apply a fertilizer to the soil to keep cultivated plants healthy. As they grow, plants extract nutrients they need from the soil. Unless these nutrients are replenished, plants will eventually cease to grow. In nature, nutrients are returned to the soil when plants die and decay. However, this does not occur with cultivated plants. Humans cultivate plants mainly for food, either for themselves or for livestock. When cultivated plants are harvested, the nutrients that the plants extracted from the soil are taken away. To keep the soil productive, it is necessary to replace these nutrients artificially. The kinds and amounts of nutrients that plants need have been determined and can be supplied by applying to the soil substances that contain these nutrients. A plant contains a great number of chemical compounds. The major compound in all plants is water. The percent of the plant's weight that is water varies greatly from one kind of plant to another, from less than 20% to more than 90%. After the water is removed, the bulk of the dry plant material consists of carbohydrate compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Using the energy of sunlight in a process called photosynthesis, plants make carbohydrates in their leaves. The carbon and oxygen in carbohydrates...
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...MACRO ECONOMICS - Prof. POOJA MISHRA AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN INDIA GROUP DETAILS Aashish Kumar Arya 13DM003 Akanksha Khar 13DM017 Abhay Goyal 13DM006 Akash Jain 13DM019 Abhishek Surendra Rane 13DM008 Ankit Saraff 13DM029 INDIAN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR EXECUTIVE SUMMARY India accounts for only about 2.4 % of the world’s geographical area and 4 % of its water resources, but manages about 17 % of the world’s human population and 15 % of the livestock. Agriculture is a critical sector of the Indian economy. Though its contribution to the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country has fallen from about 30 % in 1990-91 to less than 15 % in 2011-12, a trend that is expected in the development process of any economy, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. An average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food, while roughly half of India’s work force is still engaged in agriculture for its livelihood. Being both a source of livelihood and food security for a vast majority of low income, poor and vulnerable sections of society, its performance assumes greater significance in view of the proposed National Food Security Bill and the ongoing Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) scheme. Accelerating the growth of agriculture production is therefore necessary not only to achieve an overall GDP target of 8 % during the 12th Plan and meet the rising demand for food, but also to increase incomes of those dependent...
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...Introducción La produccion y comercialización de alimentos ha sido una permanente inquietud del hombre en su conjunto para satisfacer sus necesidades. Los alimentos constituyen nuestra primera forma de riqueza y su producción la primera actividad económica, que ganó no sólo la mayor parte de empleo y de la prosperidad, sino muchos de los instrumentos a partir de los que más tarde se construiría una economía más diversificada. De la agricultura surgió una organización económica, el comercio y la especulación y gestiones rudimentarias de contabilidad. Más tarde, en el siglo XVIII el crecimiento de la población europea sobrepasó los métodos de producción de la época y las hambrunas surgieron amenazantes para la humanidad. El hombre tuvo que investigar e implantar tecnologías que requerían menos mano de obra, el cambio de escalas de producción mayores y la asociación de un sistema de intercambio de alimentos. Con el seguimiento de la revolución industrial, las granjas comenzaron a ser dirigidas como unidades fabriles, en las que las materias primas (semillas, piensos y productos químicos) se convierten en un producto (cereales y carnes). Los comercios independientes se fueron aglutinando progresivamente hasta transformarse hoy en día en enormes y eficaces supermercados que después se convirtieron en cadenas de hiper mercados. En realidad, el sector moderno de la alimentación se ha convertido en todos los niveles en una versión de la econmía industrial a la que un día sirvió...
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...International Economics BEQM607 "Agricultural Subsidies & Development" Completed by: John Williams - Rosita Tran - Shrey Sharma- 11739401 Word Count: Viraj Bhatti - Introduction Agriculture accounts for 9% of world trade as is therefore not surprisingly top of the list for government policy for many countries, with agriculture industry still being the largest employer in many developing and third world countries. Currently there are many global issues regarding agricultural policies which include subsidies and tariffs, with continues debate whether they are economically beneficial or in fact detrimental to the agriculture trade market. The world is in a current face off involving developed countries such USA and EU and rising developing countries such as Brazil and India. International efforts have been made to solve issues through trade negotiations such as The Doha Round, a current round of trade negotiations among the World Trade Organization members, which have been going on since 2001 due to the complexity of the issues surrounding agricultural industry. The aim of this essay to critically analyse the effects of removing tariffs and subsidies on the average consumer and average farmer in developed countries as well as how it will effect developing countries. Removing Tariffs and Subsidies “The current subsidies distort incentives for the global trade of agricultural commodities in which other countries may have a comparative advantage. Allowing...
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...Agricultural Revolution: Relationship between Men and Women To understand why the relationship between men and women changed after the Agricultural Revolution we must first get a brief overview of how women were viewed prior to the Agricultural Revolution and what role they played. With the help of archeologist and history recorded we are able to contrast the differences in history of views of power between men and women. There are three different stages of human development in history: hunting and gathering, farming, city life. A woman’s role changed during each of these stages. Prior to agricultural revolution, during the hunting and gathering stage, women had a very important role in gathering and creating sustainability and preservation of food. There was no private property and riches and they had no variation in wealth and power because everyone did a lot of the same work; hunting and gathering. Women where objects of warship and fertility gods. After the Agricultural Revolution the relationship between men and women changed due to the change in agriculture which became more advanced and women’s roles changed and therefore the view on the importance between a man and a woman also changed. Women where more independent and free in the hunting and gathering stage then they are today. Why did the relationship between men and women change after the Agricultural Revolution? It is natural human behavior to honor and respect those that provide for fellow mankind in the most...
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...techniques are underdeveloped or insufficient for institutions to efficiently lend to activities in the agricultural sector. Information on borrowers’ credit histories is rarely available, resulting in information asymmetries that make accurate credit risk assessment difficult. In addition, while agricultural client’s major assets are production and land, it is often difficult for banks to use these as collateral, and particularly difficult to foreclose on land in case of default. Compounding this lack of traditional collateral is the presence of a high degree of covariate risk, in particular market price risk and weather risk. Banks lending to agricultural clients know that agricultural and rural revenues easily drop below break-even levels due to extreme weather events and price falls, which result in defaults and higher loan loss provisions, thereby making lending to agribusiness unprofitable. The second major constraint in agricultural lending, high transaction and supervisory costs, is due to the particular risk, nature, and characteristics of the rural sector. In all financial markets, there is a trade-of between minimizing loan default and supervisory costs, but the nature of agricultural lending, especially through microfinance institutions, makes transaction costs and supervision costs disproportionately high relative to its urban counterpart. The small size of seasonal agricultural credit results in high due diligence costs per loan. The large geographical spread of customers...
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...Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women Women are the backbone of the development of rural and national economies. They comprise 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force, which rises to 70% in some countries. In Africa, 80% of the agricultural production comes from small farmers, who are mostly rural women. Women comprise the largest percentage of the workforce in the agricultural sector, but do not have access and control over all land and productive resources. During the last ten years, many African countries have adopted new land laws in order to strengthen women’s land ownership rights. This has helped improve the situation of rural women. To this effect, the lack of appreciation of the role of rural women in agriculture is harmful and gives rise to a lack of specific policies, policies which are misdirected, high levels of poverty, illiteracy and non-involvement in the design and planning of programs and policies, which involves a process of mutual learning that reflects the real and specific needs of rural women. Despite the important roles they play in agricultural economies, rural women in Africa suffer from the highest illiteracy rates and are the most visible face of poverty. Women guarantee livelihoods, especially in rural areas. As a result of their great efforts in agricultural production, women’s production helps to guarantee their self-sustenance. This is still not enough, however,...
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...led by Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries and Forestry, Hubert Emmanuel, who served as Master of Ceremonies (MC). Deputy Permanent Secretary, Mrs. Sonia Monrose delivered welcome remarks to an expectant audience. She noted that agro-processing serves to enhance food security; while improving the value chain by transforming primary agricultural produce making them ready-vacuum-packed for our busy housewives, house-husbands, restaurants, hotels, motels, supermarkets and other retail outlets throughout Saint Lucia.The Chairman of the Saint Lucia Marketing Board (SLMB), Mr. Stephen Best, pointed out that the Fond Assau Agro-Processing Centre, is a momentous occasion reflecting the foresight and vision of the Minister of Agriculture, Ezechiel Joseph; and by extension, the Stephenson King Administration. He said the SLMB is pleased to be associated with this facility from which the synergies expected would definitely redound to the national interest in the agricultural diversification drive. Mr. Best said, to implement the new mandate, the SLMB will be rebranded to the National Agricultural Clearing House to be shortly relocated near the IRDC...
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...Deeksha Singh Fundamentals of International Business September 25, 2012 Agricultural Subsidies and Development Summary of Case Study: Agricultural Subsidies and Development The closing case describes the government sponsored subsidies and tariffs on agricultural products in the United States and EU countries. The subsidies and tariffs protect farmers in those countries from low commodity prices, however at the same time, hurt farmers in the developing nations. According to the United Nation, the subsidies and tariffs effectively cancel out the aid provided by the developed world to the developing nations by limiting export earnings from agricultural products. Discussion of this case can revolve around the following questions: 1) If agricultural tariffs and subsidies to producers were removed overnight, what would the impact be on the average consumer in developed nations such as the US and the EU countries? What would the impact be on the average farmer? Do you think the total benefits outweigh the total cost or vice versa? I believe if agricultural tariffs and subsidies were removed overnight the impact on the average consumer in a developed nation would be, the prices of goods would rise because developed nations would no longer be dumping the surplus of good on the world market. The impact on the average farmer would be that they are no longer protected from international demand and prices. I do not think the total benefits outweigh the cost; they should remove...
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...combination of crops and livestock to be produced. Should the business produce only crops, only livestock or some combination? Which crops or crop rotation? Which livestock? The manager must then select from among the many alternatives that combination which will maximize profit or best meet some other goal. 2. How much to produce? Production is determined primarily by the number of inputs used and input level. A manager is faced with the problems of how much fertilizer and irrigation water to use, seeding rates, feeding levels, labour and machinery use, and determining the rates and levels for other inputs. Therefore the level of production and profit will be determined by the input levels selected. 3. How to produce? Many agricultural products can be produced in a number of ways. For example, beef can be produced with a high-grain ration or a high-roughage ration; pigs can be produced with large capital investment in buildings with little labour; crops can be produced with large machinery and little labour or smaller machinery and more labour. Therefore, a manager must select the appropriate combination of inputs which will minimize the cost of producing a given quantity of some commodity. Characteristics of economic...
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...AGRICULTURAL RISK Agricultural risk are element or factor that constraint agricultural production and expose them to danger or loss. Agricultural risks can range from independent (for example, localized hail losses or an individual farmer’s illness) to highly correlated (for example, market price risk or widespread drought). Managing risks in agriculture is particularly challenging, as many risks are highly correlated, resulting in whole communities being affected at the same time. Clearly, given the widespread nature of resultant loss, financial recovery is particularly difficult and challenging. For governments, the fiscal implications of social safety net payments or the rebuilding of damaged infrastructure can be serious. For insurers, sudden losses suffered by a large number of policyholders places a strain on their reserves and financial stability. For farming communities, there is often no other option than to sell assets, normally at distressed prices. MAJOR RISKS IN AGRICULTURAL TYPE OF RISK | EXAMPLES | Weather | Periodic deficit or excess rainfall, varying temperatures, hail storms, strong winds | Natural disaster (including extreme weather events) | Major floods, droughts, hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons, earthquakes, volcanic activity | Biology and environment | Crop/livestock pests and diseases; contamination caused by poor sanitation, humans, or illnesses; contamination affecting food safety, natural resources/environment, or production and...
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...Done by: D. Singh | Factors that Affect Soil Nutrients Nutrient availability can be influenced by several factors and these include: 1. Soil Ph: The relative concentration of the hydrogen irons and or hydroxyl irons may either increase or decrease nutrient availability. 2. The Presence of Other Nutrients: The essence of the various mineral salts will either increase or decrease the other mineral salts in the soil. 3. Leaching: This encourages the draining of mineral salts from the topsoil to subsoil thereby depriving plants of such nutrients. 4. Crop Removal: This may be in form of clean clearing, deforestation or cutting down of harvested crops which lead to loss of nutrients in the soil. 5. Oxidation and Reduction: This is a form of chemical reaction in which the electron(s) is or are either lost or gained thereby changing the state of the mineral salts. In such a changed state, the mineral salts may be washed away. 6. Burning: This kills soil organisms, destroys the texture and structure of the soil and finally reduces plant nutrients. 7. Erosion: This helps in washing away of soil nutrients from one place to another, and may occur under the influence of heavy rain or wind storm. Erosion Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of primarily mineral constituents, which differ from the parent materials in their texture, structure, consistence, color, chemical, biological and other physical characteristics. Plants and crops need soil to live and grow on;...
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