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FUNDAMENTOS DE LEVANTAMENTOS PEDOLÓGICOS: OBJETIVOS, UTILIDADES, UNIDADES BÁSICAS DE REFERÊNCIA, DEFINIÇÕES E CRITÉRIOS ESSENCIAIS
LEVANTAMENTO PEDOLÓGICO
- Um prognóstico da distribuição geográfica dos solos como corpos naturais.
-Identifica solos que passam a ser conhecidos como unidades naturais, prevê e delineia suas áreas nos mapas, em termos de classes definidas de solos.
-Identifica e separa unidades de mapeamento.
-É constituído, na sua forma final, por um mapa e um texto explicativo. - O mapa mostra a distribuição espacial de características dos solos e a composição de unidades de mapeamento em termos de unidades taxonômicas.

OBJETIVOS
Subdividir áreas heterogêneas em parcelas mais homogêneas, que apresentem menor variabilidade possível, em função dos parâmetros de classificação e das características utilizadas para a distinção de solos.

UTILIDADES
Cada unidade de mapeamento delineada num mapa de solos possui um conjunto de propriedades inter-relacionadas que lhe são próprias.
Em países desenvolvidos, os levantamentos de solos são executados para atendimento de projetos, envolvendo:
*O uso agrícola e não agrícola;
*Conservação e recuperação dos solos;
*Decisões localizadas em construção civil, expansão urbana, irrigação, drenagem, taxação de impostos, previsão de safras;
*Planejamento de uso racional do solo em nível de propriedades.

UNIDADES BÁSICAS DE REFERÊNCIA
Em taxonomia de solos, o indivíduo solo não é perfeitamente distinto é uma entidade imaginária, criada artificialmente por conveniência (KNOX, 1965).
Entre as unidades de referência de maior relevância para levantamento de solos estão o perfil, o pedon e o polipedon.

PEDON
O pedon é uma unidade básica de referência, tridimensional, com limites e dimensões arbitrárias, cuja área é determinada pela variabilidade lateral das características utilizadas em taxonomia de solos.
Pedons são representados por perfis, por meio dos quais são morfológica, física, química e mineralogicamente caracterizados.

POLIPEDON É uma área de solos constituída por um agrupamento de pedons semelhantes, cujos os limites laterais coincidem com os limites de outros conjuntos de pedons e cuja profundidade é determinada pelos pedons que o constituem (SCHELLING, 1970). O polipedon tem limites laterais estabelecidos pelos critérios de classificação e coincide com a classe de solo no nível categórico mais baixo da taxonomia de solos.

NÍVEIS CATEGÓRICOS DO SISTEMA BRASILEIRO DE CLASSIFICAÇÃO DE SOLOS 1o. nível (ordens) 13 (LETRAS MAIÚSCULAS); 2o. nível (subordens) 43 (LETRAS MAIÚSCULAS); 3o. nível (grandes grupos) 192 (Primeira Letra Maiúscula); 4o. nível (subgrupo) 812 (letras minúsculas); 5o. nível (famílias); 6o. nível (séries) Ex: NEOSSOLO LITÓLICO Distrófico típico.
PERFIL
Horizonte: seção a superfície ou paralela a esta, de constituição mineral ou orgânica, diferenciada, resultante da alteração de processos pedogenéticos.
Camada: seção à superfície ou paralela a esta, de constituição mineral ou orgânica, pouco diferenciada e pouco ou nada influenciada pelos processos pedogenéticos.
Perfil é uma face exposta do solo, que é reconhecido, classificado e descrito no campo.
Perfil completo e complementar.

Perfis completos: todos os horizontes, subhorizontes, e horizontes transicionais são descritos e coletados.

CLASSE DE SOLO
Grupamento de indivíduos semelhantes em características selecionadas.
Classe de solo, unidade taxonômica.
Unidade fundamental na composição de unidades de mapeamento e no estabelecimento das relações solo/paisagem.
Definida por características morfológicas, físicas, químicas e mineralógicas com apoio de um sistema taxonômico organizado.
# Vertissolo, Plintossolo, Luvissolo e Planossolo# não mapeados no PR.

UNIDADES TAXONÔMICAS
Unidade taxonômica é um conjunto de características e propriedades do solo, conhecidas por meio do estudo de pedons e polipedons e corresponde a unidade de classificação mais homogênea em qualquer nível categórico de sistemas taxonômicos.

UNIDADES DE MAPEAMENTO
Unidades de mapeamento são áreas de solos definidas em função das unidades taxonômicas que as compõem.
Unidade taxonômica é uma classe de solo definida e conceituada, segundo parâmetros de classificação.
Unidade de mapeamento é um conjunto de áreas de solos com relações e posições definidas na paisagem.

Unidade de mapeamento pode ser:
Unidade simples, designada pelo nome de uma única unidade taxonômica.
Unidade combinada, quando por várias unidades taxonômicas.
Uma unidade simples é uma unidade de mapeamento com um só componente.
Entre as unidades combinadas, associações, os complexos e os grupos indiferenciados de solos.

Associações As associações são constituídas por classes distintas de solos, com limites nítidos ou pouco nítidos entre sí, podendo, normalmente, ser separados em levantamentos pedológicos mais pormenorizados (EUA, 1967). Associação solo A + solo B. Componentes individuais de uma associação devem concorrer no mínimo com 20% da área.

Complexos
O complexo de solo é uma unidade de mapeamento utilizada em levantamentos pedológicos detalhados e consiste em dois ou mais solos taxonomicamente distintos, mas não mapeáveis como unidades individuais (EUA, 1951 e 1967).
As unidades taxonômicas que compõem um complexo deverão ser necessariamente, identificadas, descritas, coletadas e caracterizadas analiticamente
Complexo solo A – solo B
Os complexos são, por definição, constituídos por solos distintos, de limites pouco nítidos entre sí, de difícil individualização para fins cartográficos.
Os complexos têm ocorrência mais comum em bacias sedimentares (GLEISSOLOS E ORGANOSSOLOS)

Grupos indiferenciados
Os grupos indiferenciados são constituídos pela combinação de duas ou mais unidades taxonômicas com semelhanças morfogenéticas e portanto pouco diferenciadas.
Declividade, pedregosidade, rochosidade e drenagem, podem reunir solos distintos no mesmo agrupamento, uma vez que são determinantes do uso e manejo.
Grupos indiferenciados solos A E solo B

Tipos de terreno
São unidades de mapeamento especiais e não propriamente classes de solos.
Incluem-se as áreas de empréstimo e de despejo de entulhos, aterros, áreas urbanas, cascalheiras, escarpas rochosas e afloramentos de rochas, assinaladas em mapas de solos e representados por convenções cartográficas apropriadas.

Inclusões
Em unidades de mapeamento simples ou combinadas, é comum a ocorrência de solos em proporções muito menores que o componente ou componentes principais. Essas ocorrências são designadas por inclusões e, em geral, representam menos de 20% da área total da unidade de mapeamento.

FASES DE UNIDADES DE MAPEAMENTO
Fase de mapeamento é um recurso utilizado para evidenciar diferenças de importância prática entre unidades de mapeamento (DENT & YOUNG, 1981).
Em qualquer tipo de levantamento, a fase serve para subdividir unidades de mapeamento, segundo características relacionadas ao uso do solo:
- Pedregosidade, rochosidade, erosão, drenagem, relevo, declividade, vegetação ou qualquer outra característica importante para os objetivos do levantamento.

LEGENDA
Vistoria geral da área > identificar unidades de mapeamento > correlações destas as diversas feições da paisagem. Elaboração da legenda preliminar (modificações, adaptações e atualizações) Em áreas que possuem cobertura aerofotográfica, ou dispõem de imagens de outros sensores proceder interpretação preliminar com o objetivo de detectar diferentes aspectos fisiográficos. A legenda final de identificação dos solos é organizada após o término dos trabalhos de campo e de laboratório, quando são feitos os ajustes necessários e estabelecida a classificação definitiva dos solos. As legendas refletem as relações entre os solos e as feições da paisagem e são, essencialmente, a listagem de unidades de mapeamento e seus respectivos símbolos.

MÉTODOS DE PROSPECÇÃO Os métodos de prospecção em levantamento de solos visam a coleta de dados, descrição de características dos solos no campo e verificação de limites entre unidades de mapeamento. Os métodos usuais de prospecção compreendem as investigações ao longo de: - Transeções - Levantamento de áreas piloto - Estudo de topossequências - Sistema de malhas e, - Método do caminhamento livre.

Métodos dos transeptos
Esse método consiste de observações por meio de caminhos planejados para detectar características dos solos e variação da paisagem.

Métodos de áreas piloto
Investiga minuciosamente áreas menores representativas, e posteriormente extrapola os dados para o restante da área.
São indicados para mapeamentos de natureza generalizada.

Métodos de toposseqüências
Correlaciona as variações do solo com as superfície geomórficas em que ocorrem.
Escolhe seqüências topográficas ao longo das quais será executado o caminhamento e abertura de perfis. É o método mais apropriado para levantamentos pedológicos detalhados.

Método das malhas
Consta de observações a espaços prefixados que formam uma malha, ou retículo, em toda a extensão da área .
É utilizado em levantamentos detalhados e ultradetalhados.

Método do caminhamento livre
Pedólogos experientes utilizam o próprio julgamento e a fotointerpretação para localizar pontos de amostragem.

FREQÜÊNCIA DE AMOSTRAGEM
Número de perfis completos e complementares, e de amostras extras, descritos e coletados num levantamento pedológico.
A freqüência de amostragem é função do tipo do levantamento, objetivos, escala de publicação, grau de heterogeneidade da área de trabalho e da composição de unidades de mapeamento.
Em todos os levantamentos pedológicos, devem ser indicados, no mapa, os locais de amostragem dos perfis completos, dos perfis complementares e das amostras extras.
Nas fichas de descrição das amostras, é indispensável o georeferenciamento dos pontos de amostragem, visando a manutenção de informações precisas em bancos de dados e SIGs.

DENSIDADE DE OBSERVAÇÕES
A densidade de observações é função do tipo do levantamento, da escala de mapeamento, da extensão e da homogeneidade ou heterogeneidade da área de trabalho.
Três tipos de observações:
a) Observações para classificação de solos – executadas para identificação das unidades de mapeamento;
b) Observações para verificação de limites entre unidades de mapeamento; e
c) Observações especiais – executadas para registro de fenômenos específicos.
A densidade de observações é função do nível do levantamento, da escala de publicação e da heterogeneidade da área.

Baseado nos diversos tipos de levantamentos pedológicos executados no Brasil, recomenda-se observar as seguintes faixas de observações por área especificada:
a) Levantamento Detalhado: 0,20 – 4 obs /ha
b) Levantamento Semidetalhado: 0,02 – 0,20 obs /ha
c) Levantamento de Reconhecimento: 0,04 – 2,00 obs km2
d) Levantamento Exploratório: menos de 0,04 obs/ km2
e) Levantamento Esquemático: sem especificação

BASES DE REFERÊNCIA
Compreende o material cartográfico, desde: - mapas planialtimétricos; - imagens de radar e satélite; - fotografias aéreas, - carta imagem de sensores remotos orbitais; - levantamentos topográficos convencionais e, - restituições aerofotográficas. Além deste material:
-mapas pedológicos pré existentes, mapas geológicos, geomorfológicos, climáticos, fitogeográficos e outros.

ESCALA DO MATERIAL BÁSICO E DE PUBLICAÇÃO
DENT & YOUNG (1981) recomendam a utilização de mapas básicos em escala 2 a 2,5 vezes maior do que a escala de publicação.
A escala final de publicação dos mapas é função dos objetivos, necessidades dos usuários, grau de detalhamento desejado e nível de conhecimento disponível no país.
Para implantação de projetos (loteamentos, assentamentos, experimentação, colonização, irrigação, drenagem e construção civil) as escalas finais dos mapas devem ser compatíveis com o planejamento de execução da tais projetos e devem, também serem possíveis de superpor-se a outras bases temáticas.

ÁREA MÍNIMA MAPEÁVEL (AMM)
A menor dimensão que pode ser legivelmente delineada num mapa, sem prejuízo da informação gerada nos trabalhos de campo, corresponde a uma área de 0,4 cm2 (0,6 x 0,6 cm), que equivalerá a uma área no terreno determinada pela escala do mapa correspondente.

AMM (ha) = E2 x 0,4 /108
AMM (km2) = E2 x 0,4 /1010

Exemplo: mapa de solos do Paraná AMM = E2 x 0,4 / 108 AMM = (600.000)2 x 0,4 / 108 AMM = 1440 ha

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...CHAPTER 5 AN INTEGRATED SYSTEMS APPROACH TO CROP IMPROVEMENT G.L. HAMMER# AND D.R. JORDAN## # Agricultural Production Systems Research Unit (APSRU), School of Land and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia. ## Hermitage Research Station, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Warwick, QLD 4370, Australia. E-mail: g.hammer@uq.edu.au Abstract. Progress in crop improvement is limited by the ability to identify favourable combinations of genotypes (G) and management practices (M) given the resources available to search among possible combinations in the target population of environments (E). Crop improvement can be viewed as a search strategy on a complex G×M×E adaptation or fitness landscape. Here we consider design of an integrated systems approach to crop improvement that incorporates advanced technologies in molecular markers, statistics, bio-informatics, and crop physiology and modelling. We suggest that such an approach can enhance the efficiency of crop improvement relative to conventional phenotypic selection by changing the focus from the paradigm of identifying superior varieties to a focus on identifying superior combinations of genetic regions and management systems. A comprehensive information system to support decisions on identifying target combinations is the critical core of the approach. We discuss the role of ecophysiology and modelling in this integrated systems approach by reviewing (i) applications in environmental...

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