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Analog vs Digital

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Digital y analógico son, básicamente, los dos métodos utilizados hoy en dia, para el procesamiento electrónico de información. A su vez, por información entendemos todo aquello que tiene significado para nosotros, desde la palabra hasta la música.
Hay que tener en cuenta que la información no existe sino en el cambio. El sonido, por ejemplo, no es más que la vibración del aire (o cualquier otro fluido). Una fotografía es también la variación de algo, en este caso de tonalidades a lo largo y ancho de una superficie; una hoja de papel en blanco, por el contrario, no contiene información alguna.
Sabiendo esto, es fácil entender que procesar información por medios electrónicos no consiste sino en provocar variaciones dentro de esos medios, que de alguna manera se correspondan con las variaciones originales de aquel medio que contenía la información en su forma primaria.
La manera más sencilla de representar la información electrónicamente consiste en hacer variar alguna magnitud eléctrica, como el voltage, en proporción exacta a las variaciones del medio original. Un ejemplo claro de esto es el micrófono.

Un micrófono típico tiene una membrana delgada que está acomplada a un fino alambre de cobre enrollado en torno a un a un imán (ver figura). Cuando el micrófono se expone a las ondas sonoras, estas hacen vibrar a la membrana, con lo cual el enrollado de cobre también vibra respecto al imán. Este movimiento relativo del enrollado respeto al imán, induce una corriente eléctrica en el primero, cuya intencidad y sentido son proporcionales a las vibraciones de la membrana, y por ende, a las del sonido captado por esta. La corriente electrica así producida se llama "señal eléctrica" (señal, porque contien información), y puede ser conducida a lo largo de un cable eléctricon hasta otro dispositivo electrónico para su ulterior procesamiento.
Pudiéramos intentar representar a la onda sonora original en un plano cartesiano, poniendo el tiempo en las absisas y la presión sonora instantánea en las ordenadas. Otro tanto pudiéramos hacer con la señal eléctrica producida por el micrófono, poniendo el tiempo en las absisas y la intencidad instantánea de la corriente eléctrica en las ordenadas. No nos sorprenderíamos al ver que ambos gráficos son casi idénticos, o sea, el micrófono ha producido una señal eléctrica "análoga" a la señal original. Es justamente por eso que este método recibe el nombre de "analógico".
El método digital es completamente diferente, y bastante más complicado. No es sorprendente que la tecnología electrónica haya surgido y se haya desarrollado por décadas siguiendo exclusivamente el método analógico. No fue sino hasta finales de la Segunda Guerra Mundial que este panorama cambió, con la invensión de las computadoras electrónicas.
En un principio, estas máquinas estaban orientadas a resolver problemas numéricos, de modo que la información a representar y procesar dentro de ellas era, basicamente, el número. El método analógico sin embargo, hasta entonces tan éxitoso con magnitudes continuas como el sonido, no resultaba igualmente adecuado para representar objetos de naturaleza discontinua, como lo son los números. En realidad se llegaron a construir computadoras analógicas, pero pronto se desechó este camino y se adoptó el método digital.
En el mundo digital, todo se representa con numeros binarios. El ejemplo más sencillo es, por supuesto, el número mismo, como en el caso de una calculadora de bolsillo.
Desde el punto de vista del medio electrónico, lo único que se necesita es una magnitud eléctrica que solo pueda presentarse en dos estados, por ejemplo un voltage que solo pueda ser 0 voltio ó 3 voltios. De esta manera un voltage puede representar a un digito de información o "bit".
Teniendo una gran cantidad de "cosas" que proporcionen esos voltages bi-estado, tendremos consecuentemente esa misma cantidad de "bits". En la electrónica moderna, esas "cosas" se llaman "bi-estables" y están contenidas en grandes cantidades dentro de circuitos integrados como memorias y microprocesadores. Es de notar que no podemos tener infinitos bi-estables dentro de un circuito integrado dado, de modo que en electrónica digital no se puede trabajar con numeros arbitrariamente grandes. Por esta razón, la presición de los números tiene que ser limitada a una cierta cantidad de bits, tipicamente 8, 16, 32 ó 64.
Para representar otros tipos de información como la imagen y el sonido digitalmente, se necesitan dos pasos. Primero hay que capturar la información por metodos analógicos y obtener una señal eléctrica analógica, por elemplo, capturar el sonido utilizando un micrófono. Luego hay que realizar una operación llamada "muestreo". Esta operación consiste en medir la intencidad de la señal analógica a tiempos regulares, y por cada medisión, guardar el valor numérico (representado en binario) de la magnitud medida (Ver figura).

En la figura, se está muestreando una señal arbitraria, a tiempos regulares T. Por cada muestreo, se mide el nivel de la señal, representandolo mediante un numeros de 4 bits. La suseción de números binarios asi capturados (0100, 0110, 0111, 0110, 0111, 1100, 1101) constituye una representación digital de la señal en cuestión. Esta suseción es guardada en memoria y/o procesada de forma absolutamente numérica.
Al final del proceso, es preciso realizar la operación contraria, es decir, reproducir a la salida una versión analógica de la señal digital. Este proceso se llama conversión digital-analógica (D/A) mientras que el primero se llama conversión analógico-digital (A/D).
Es obvio que en el muestreo no pueden medirse todos los momentos de la señal analógica, puesto que entre una muestra y la siguente (tiempo T), cualquier valor real que tome el nivel, no será registrado en el proceso. Todo parece indicar que el muestreo introduce un error inevitable, es decir, una distorción. En realidad no es asi; el error se puede eliminar por completo si el intervalo de muestreo (T) se hace suficientemente pequeño. Asi lo garantiza un teorema matemático llamado Teorema de Shannon, el cual establece que tomando una frecuencia de muestreo igual o mayor que el doble de la máxima componente de frecuencia de la señal a muestrear, se consigue representar completamente a dicha señal.
En la práctica la frecuencia de muestreo se toma un poco por encima del doble, por ejemplo el sonido, cuya máxima componente de frecuencia es 20 KHz, se muestrea a 44 KHz y no a 40.
El verdadero error se introduce debido a la presición de los números con que representamos a los niveles. En la figura, por ejemplo, la segunda y la cuarta muestra miden con el mismo numero (0110) dos niveles de la señal original que en realidad no son iguales. A este error se le llama "distorción por cuantificación" y solo se resuelve aumentando el numero de bits. En la práctica 16 bits son suficientes para capturar el sonido con óptima calidad, como en el caso de los discos compactos de música.
A pesar de su gran complejidad, las ventajas del método digital sobre el analógico son cada vez más notorias. Esto está dado principalmente por los continuos avances en la ciencia y la tecnología de la computación, los cuales están inmediatamente disponibles para cualquier señal siempre que esta se represente digitalmente. Es por ello que el método digital tiene una amplia y creciente supremacía en la electrónica de nuestros dias.

Análogo versus digital
Una señal continua o analógica es una que posee valores en cada instante de tiempo. En contraste, una señal discreta o digital sólo posee valores en ciertos instantes de tiempo, distanciados a intervalos regulares. Una señal discreta no está definida para valores intermedios de tiempo. Esto se visualiza claramente en la figura 4.1. | Figura 4.1: Señal análoga versus digital |
Una señal continua es convertida en una señal digital mediante un proceso denominado digitalización , el cual a su vez es un proceso que depende de dos operaciones: muestreo (sampling en inglés), que corresponde a tomar muestras de la señal en el tiempo y cuantización, que consiste en aproximar valores continuos de la amplitud a un grupo de valores manejables en el computador. Este proceso se visualiza en la figura 4.2. Una señal continua (a) es primero muestreada en el tiempo para producir una versión de tiempo discreto (b). Luego, su amplitud es cuantizada, lo que implica aproximar su amplitud a un conjunto discreto de valores, proceso que se muestra en (c). Bajo ciertas condiciones, es posible reconstruir desde (c) la señal original, la que se muestra en (d). | Figura 4.2: Digitalización de una señal análoga |
Una señal digital consiste en una secuencia de numeros, | (6.1) |

donde corresponde al número de muestra y sólo toma valores enteros. Una señal sinusoidal digital se escribe como: | (6.2) |

donde A es la amplitud, es la frecuencia angular y la fase inicial.
Al ser meramente un índice que indica el número de muestra, las señales digitales de audio no tienen una dependencia intrínseca con el tiempo. Para poder escuchar un sonido digital es necesario escoger una tasa de muestreo, usualmente denotada , la cual índica cuantas muestras hay por unidad de tiempo, típicamente en un segundo. Esto es, . Por lo tanto, una sinusoide con velocidad angular tiene una frecuencia temporal dada por | (6.3) |

Al tratarse una señal digital de una secuencia de números, por lo general para analizar cualquier característica de ella es necesario escoger una ventana de análisis. Esto es una ventana que comienza en una muestra arbitraria y con un largo de muestras: | (6.4) |

Hay muchas formas de elegir una ventana apropiada. El tipo de ventana indice directamente en lo que se denomina spectral leaking, que podría traducirse como derramado espectral, como se observa en el espectro de frecuencias de cada ventana. Una ventana ideal debiera tener un derramado los más angosto y atenuado posible. La ventana más simple es una de tipo rectangular, en la cual la secuencia digital se multiplica por una función rectangular pero presenta problemas sobre todo en los bordes, dado que introduce un cambio muy brusco en la señal, lo que provoca que la señal se desparrame en la frecuencia. Hay muchas otras formas de ventanas que pueden resultar más apropiadas para ciertas operaciones, y tratan de suavizar el efecto en los bordes, en la figura 4.3 se muestran tres de las más utilizadas: rectangular (a), hamming (b) y Hann (c). Claramente, la ventana Hann presenta un mejor derramado, respecto a las otras dos. | Figura 4.3: Algunas funciones de ventanas |

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