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Ch 1 Histoire des sociétés

Parler des mentalités et de leur histoire, c'est parler des sociétés. Ce premier chapitre d'introduction commence par rappeler brièvement l'histoire des sociétés.

1 - Les sociétés primitives : des économies de subsistance
Nous savons peu de choses sur les sociétés primitives car aux périodes où les hommes entrent en contact avec les premières sociétés primitives, ils n'ont pas de vision respectueuse des autres. L'autre, dès lors qu'on l'a conquis, n'a pas d'existence autonome digne d'être mentionnée. Cependant si ces sociétés s'étaient maintenues, c'est qu'elles avaient atteint un certain équilibre économique. Certaines des sociétés primitives, découvertes entre le XVIème et le XVIIIème siècle, ont un mode de vie proche de l'humanité primitive vivant à l'âge de pierre. Toutes ont vécu de l'apparition de l'homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon, nous-mêmes ou Neandertal) à leur découverte, soit de 50 000, 100 ou 200 000 ans avant notre ère à l'âge des métaux, c'est-à-dire 5000 ans avant notre ère. Faibles, mal armées, assez dépendantes de leur milieu naturel, certes… mais l'homme a vécu dix fois plus longtemps plus longtemps dans ce type de société que dans celles qui ont suivi. Ces sociétés ont donc une certaine efficacité. Des sociétés basées sur la coopération. Ce qui permet à l'homme d'exister, c'est qu'il vit dans des sociétés basées sur la coopération. La coopération est une condition de survie au moins au sein du groupe (celui-ci peut se révéler belliqueux vis-à-vis des autres). L'économie est rudimentaire :

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cueillette, chasse. Le travail est collectif, la propriété privée limitée Elle est limitée à un petit nombre d'objets personnels. La monnaie n'existe pas, les échanges sont limités. La répartition et l'appropriation des produits du travail humain qui découlent de cette coopération sont le résultat de coutumes. Il n'y a nulle place pour l'individualisme supposé de l'homo oeconomicus de nos cours de micro-économie, invention du XVIIIème siècle. Des sociétés relativement égalitaires. La question de la différenciation sociale et de la hiérarchie qu'elle entraîne ne peut exister qu'à partir de l'existence d'un surplus. Des sociétés pauvres, mais qui satisfont leurs besoins. Certains auteurs ont même parlé de société d'abondance à leur propos, car à partir du moment où l'on n'a pas idée des objets que l'on fabriquera plus tard, lorsque les besoins les plus fondamentaux sont satisfaits, que l'on a de quoi manger, se vêtir, se protéger du froid, que les besoins spirituels sont satisfaits, un certain sentiment d'abondance peut régner.

2. L'Antiquité : la révolution du néolithique
La dernière étape de la préhistoire, est une véritable révolution : le "néolithique" l'invention de l'agriculture et de l'élevage, il y a 5000 ans environ. La sédentarisation de l'espèce humaine est la première conséquence. La rentabilité de l'agriculture est plus élevée que la simple cueillette. L'agriculture permet de se constituer des réserves. Une différenciation sociale plus importante est permise par l'augmentation du

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produit. C'est la base de la différenciation entre ville et campagne. Sur cette base, les inégalités pouvaient aussi se développer avec une tout autre ampleur. L'apparition de l'État est la troisième conséquence. L'autorité centralisatrice a son utilité : prévoir et gouverner les crues du Nil en Égypte, constituer et gérer les stocks pour faire face aux mauvaises années. Mais l'institution ne pouvait qu'échapper au contrôle de ces communautés villageoises et tomber entre les mains de privilégiés qui vivaient de l'extorsion de ce surproduit que la société était désormais capable de fournir régulièrement. Une certaine stabilité, et même un manque de dynamisme : l'Égypte a vécu plus longtemps sous le règne des pharaons que depuis leur disparition, mais les formes de la société n'avaient guère changé en 3000 ans, pas même l'art. Esclavagisme et exploitation du travail humain. Ces sociétés ont inventé cette forme spécifique d'utilisation massive du travail humain qu'est l'esclavagisme. Les villes, nourries par les paysans, entretiennent les rois et nobles qui administrent le pays, le protègent des invasions et razzias étrangères, les prêtres dépositaires du savoir, capables de permettre au paysan de semer à bon escient, de calculer le déroulement des saisons, les crues du Nil en Égypte et de le rassurer par rapport à ses craintes, visà-vis de la mort, de la maladie, des accidents de la vie, en lui apportant les réponses spirituelles, qui, pour être parfaitement farfelues et inefficaces ont malgré tout une fonction consolatrice. L'Antiquité gréco-romaine en l'Europe occidentale fut un peu plus dynamique, mais les choses n'allèrent pas très différemment. A la fin de l'Empire, les villas romaines manifestaient la tendance spontanée des grands empires à se déliter

3. La société féodale
Après la disparition de l'Empire romain, l'Europe se stabilise dans le système féodal, terme employé pour décrire les sociétés qui se sont succédé de la chute de l'Empire
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romain jusqu'à la Révolution de 1789. Une société qui privilégie la richesse de la terre. Les classes possédantes, noblesse ou aristocratie religieuse vivent des revenus de la terre. Le seigneur est d'autant plus puissant qu'il possède plus de terres. L'accumulation est extensive et non intensive. Les positions sociales sont déterminées par des codes. La possession de terres est liée à un système compliqué d'alliances, d'hommages, de parentés, etc. de liens de clientélisme, de sujétion ou de sang. Les paysans ne sont pas propriétaires. Une vie sociale déterminée par la tradition, ce qui est le propre de toute société, qui a tendance a voir son propre ordre social comme "naturel". Mais l'ordre féodal, l'organisation sociale, la religion renforcent et entretiennent cette tendance, qui est peu propice à l'innovation. L'organisation sociale du travail fait une place importante à la transmission du savoir par imitation, et non par invention, innovation. L'Église symbolise cette société dans toute sa contradiction : elle a conservé et transmis le savoir antique, enrichi celui-ci de découvertes et parallèlement, elle est vecteur d'obscurantisme, car on ne discute pas plus des traditions, des hiérarchies, que l'on ne discute l'enseignement de l'Église ("vérité d'évangile"). Les produits circulent peu : la communauté villageoise s'est repliée sur elle-même. Un lent développement au temps des cathédrales : renouveau de la culture, une série d'améliorations techniques, renouveau de la vie intellectuelle (la Sorbonne, Abélard, St Thomas d'Aquin), développement de la population. Les Croisades drainent les richesses de l'Orient vers l'Occident en même temps qu'elles favorisent la diffusion du savoir.

4 - La Renaissance
Le siècle des grandes découvertes, celles qui permettent de naviguer de plus en plus loin (contournement de l'Afrique et découverte du Nouveau Monde). Les nouvelles

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routes ouvertes au commerce ouvrent aussi la voie au pillage colonial qui commence, et à la traite des Noirs. Les conséquences sont le plus souvent catastrophiques pour les peuples "découverts". Mais en occident cela entraîne une accumulation de fortune formidable. Le marché prend de l'ampleur, de nouveaux produits pénètrent la société : le coton, des fenêtres ornées de vitres, une vaisselle qui ne se limite plus aux pots ou écuelles de terre cuite, etc. Du coup, le paysan doit vendre pour pouvoir acheter. Braudel parle cependant "d'îlots de capitalisme dans un océan d'autoconsommation". Un changement de mentalités : au sein même de sociétés qui restent marquées politiquement, idéologiquement et socialement par leurs origines féodales, d'autres voies s'ouvrent à l'accumulation, à l'ascension sociale. La diffusion de la religion réformée va dans le même sens, en valorisant la réussite sur terre.

5. Les sociétés modernes, des sociétés industrielles
Lorsque l'évolution est réalisée, des structures sociales peuvent retarder le processus dans certains pays, tandis qu'elles le favorisent dans d'autres, mais l'Europe est mûre pour le passage à la Révolution Industrielle. La révolution industrielle est un passage d'une société à une autre, d'une société peu productive à une société plus productive. Ce changement s'accompagne au moment du passage vers les sociétés modernes d'un changement de mentalités. Mais les mentalités, les croyances héritées du passé, ont leur propre vie. Elles peuvent résister aux évolutions, subsister alors même que les conditions qui les ont fait naître ont disparu depuis longtemps.

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