...PMB 103: METABOLISM: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DESIGN Definition of terms; metabolism, bioenergetics and thermodynamics. * Laws of thermodynamics, free energy changes and standard free energy changes in biochemical reactions. * Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP; * Free-energy change for hydrolysis of ATP and other phosphorylated compounds and thioesters. * Role of ATP: phosphorylation, * pyrophosphorylation and adenylation, * assembly of informational macromolecules, * active transport and muscle contraction. * Biological oxidation-reduction reactions; * flow of electrons * dehydrogenations * redox potentials * electron carriers * dehydrogenases * Nature of metabolic reactions: anabolism, catabolism. * regulation of metabolism. Scope of the course * (Review) the laws of thermodynamics and the quantitative relationships among free energy, enthalpy, and entropy. * describe the special role of ATP in biological energy exchanges. Consider the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in living cells, the energetic of electron-transfer reactions, and the electron carriers commonly employed as cofactors of the enzymes that catalyze these reactions. Reference Books 1. Lehninger, PPls of Biochemistry Fourth Edition David L Nelson and 2. Elementary Biophysics. An introduction. PK. Srivastave Alpha Science Oxford, UK 2005 3. Biophysics. V. Pattabhi and N. Gautham. Second Edition...
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...enzyme and substrate bind, they form the enzyme-substrate complex. An enzyme will act in a specific way on the substrate that it is bound to in order to change it into a product, and at the end of the process, the enzyme is unchanged and ready to bind to the next substrate. An enzyme acts as a catalyst, something that lowers the energy required to complete a chemical reaction (activation energy) without itself being changed. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) In the case of fructose breakdown, an enzyme called fructokinase is responsible for splitting fructose into fructose 1-phosphate, a six-carbon fructose. Another enzyme called aldolase B splits fructose 1-phosphate into two three-carbon molecules, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. These products are then able to enter the glycolysis pathway to be converted to pyruvate, which is essential for the citric acid cycle and the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy. A2. Deficiency in Aldolase B A hereditary deficiency in aldolase B could be caused by mutations in the ALDOB gene. An aldolase B deficiency will prevent the breakdown of fructose past the point of the fructose 1-phosphate stage. This causes fructose-1-phosphate to build up in the liver, and the depletion of phosphates that are needed for ATP production. Therefore, the synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis) cannot happen. Furthermore, glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen into glucose) is prevented. If a person...
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...Vocabulary: Cell Energy Cycle Vocabulary • Aerobic respiration – a chemical process in which oxygen is used to produce energy from carbohydrates. o Aerobic respiration produces much more energy than anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration results in the formation of 30 to 38 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose. • Anaerobic respiration – a chemical process in which carbohydrates are partially broken down without using oxygen. A small amount of energy is produced in this manner. o Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy than aerobic respiration, resulting in the formation of 2 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose. • ATP – adenosine triphosphate, a molecule that provides energy for cellular processes. o Energy is released when an ATP molecule is converted to an ADP (adenosine diphosphate) molecule. • Cellular respiration – a process by which energy is released from food. o When oxygen is present, oxygen and glucose combine to produce energy in the form of ATP molecules. The by-products of cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen are carbon dioxide and water. o When oxygen is not present, a smaller amount of energy is produced from the breakdown of glucose. Possible by-products include lactic acid and alcohol. • Chemical energy – energy that is released or absorbed in chemical reactions. o In the cell, chemical energy is stored in glucose molecules...
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...respiration There are three stages in cellular respiration: Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. The equation for cellular respiration is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP Glycolysis Glycolysis is multiple reactions that gain energy from glucose by splitting the glucose into 3 carbon molecules (Pyruvates). (Mason et al., 2016) Glycolysis is anaerobic meaning it doesn’t require any oxygen to be carried out. This is because energy can be made through fermentation; therefore it needs NAD+ in order for the process of Glycolysis to keep working. The anaerobic process of fermentation causes the creation of lactic acid as a by product. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell To begin the...
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...Respiration The process in which carbon dioxide is transformed into organic compounds from sunlight is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis, a natural process, offers every aerobic being on earth oxygen and also assists in maintaining a natural percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere (Cloud, David 2011). Human beings would not exist without this process. Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, plants, and certain bacteria. In contrast, respiration takes glucose (sugar), along with other organic compounds oxidizing them to develop carbon dioxide. Respiration is the metabolic reaction in organic cells, biochemical energy into adenosine triphosphate/ATP. Each cycle depends on the other, in order for the ‘complete cycle’ to transpire. When it comes to receiving energy from the foods we eat, photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases it. Both cycles are important to ensure continuous life on earth. Photosynthesis and respiration are connected between plants and animals based on the reactants and products of both pathways by the usage of autotrophs and heterotrophs. An autotroph are organisms the have the ability to manufacture their own food (“Autotroph vs. Heterotroph” n.d.). Heterotroph organisms are essential in respiration and are not an element in photosynthesis. When it comes to the autotroph, this is done by the using the available substances, in their environment, with light (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). Energy is transferred...
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...enzyme and substrate bind, they form the enzyme-substrate complex. An enzyme will act in a specific way on the substrate that it is bound to in order to change it into a product, and at the end of the process, the enzyme is unchanged and ready to bind to the next substrate. An enzyme acts as a catalyst, something that lowers the energy required to complete a chemical reaction (activation energy) without itself being changed. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) In the case of fructose breakdown, an enzyme called fructokinase is responsible for splitting fructose into fructose 1-phosphate, a six-carbon fructose. Another enzyme called aldolase B splits fructose 1-phosphate into two three-carbon molecules, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. These products are then able to enter the glycolysis pathway to be converted to pyruvate, which is essential for the citric acid cycle and the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy. A2. Deficiency in Aldolase B A hereditary deficiency in aldolase B could be caused by mutations in the ALDOB gene. An aldolase B deficiency will prevent the breakdown of fructose past the point of the fructose 1-phosphate stage. This causes fructose-1-phosphate to build up in the liver, and the depletion of phosphates that are needed for ATP production. Therefore, the synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis) cannot happen. Furthermore, glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen into glucose) is prevented. If a...
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...Ashley Cooper Biology 240 Week 1 Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process in which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose). Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of plants. * The Light Dependent Reaction: The light dependent reaction takes place in the membrane of the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast and the lumen of the thylakoid. As light hits the thylakoid (the pigment) the Chlorophyll is absorbing the energy from the photons. Chlorophyll absorbs the red and blue light and reflects the green light. This is why most plants we see are green. Once chlorophyll absorbs enough energy, it releases two electrons. To replace the electrons chlorophyll uses light to split water into Oxygen and Electrons. The Oxygen is then released as a byproduct and the chlorophyll keeps the electrons. The kept electrons are stored in the Primary Electron Acceptor. Once the electron is released it moves down the Electron Transport Chain. The movement of the electrons through the Electron Transport Chain result in the creation of Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP), which is a form of energy. This activates the proton pump-to-pump hydrogen ions into the lumen of the thylakoid. At this time two different situations happen simultaneously. Either there is a continuation of the hydrogen or the electron moved down the Electron Transport Chain end up in Photosystem 1. In the hydrogen continuation, hydrogen has just been pumped into the lumen of the...
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...called “stomata”, where it is then used to help synthesize carbohydrates from light energy. When the process ceases and the plant respires it leaves simultaneously. Environmental factors that could have an effect on stomatal movement would be the variation of how much light is being absorbed by the plant. As the plant is absorbs sunlight, stomata absorb the CO2 through their pores which allows for the process of photosynthesis to start. When light energy is no longer available the stomata closes therefore releasing the CO2 that was absorbed. What are primary stages in the photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle? Explain the role of each stage. Draw a diagram of the stages by utilizing drawing tools in Microsoft Word to aid your explanation. There are three stages of the photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle: Step 1 Carboxylation reaction CO2 + RUBP Results is 3-PGA catalized by enzyme RUBISCO; does not require energy Step 2 Reduction of 3-PGA to GAP Removes the first product of carboxylation (3-PGA) and facilitate CO2 uptake here it requires ATP and NADPH Step 3 One 3-carbon sugar available for export Regenerates CO2 acceptor molecule, RUBP Requires one ATP molecule The reaction in whole: 3CO2 + 3RUBP + 6 NADPH + 6 ATP -> 3 RUBP + G3P Three stages of the Photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR). Carboxylation, reduction, regeneration, carboxylation Explain how the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic electron transport chain are used in the...
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...Program Material Cell Energy Worksheet Answer the following questions: Cellular respiration: • What is cellular respiration and what are its three stages? Cellular respiration is the process by which electrons are transferred between glucose to coenzymes and then to oxygen. The three stagesare: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport. • What is the role of glycolysis? Include the reactants and the products. Where does it occur? Glycolysis is the sugar splitting process where the molecule is split in half outside of the mitochondria. The molecule NAD+ picks up electrons and hydrogen atoms from the carbon molecule and become NADH. ATP is produced from the process, as well as pyruvic acid. Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. With oxygen it is the first stage of the cellular respiration, but if the process is done without oxygen it is called fermentation. • What is the role of the citric acid cycle? Include the reactants and the products. Where does it occur? The Citric Acid Cycle starts after the glycolysis cycle produces the acetyl CoA compound. The Coenzyme A is removed and the remaining carbon skeleton is attached to another 4-carbon molecule. The new 6-carbon chain releases carbon dioxide. Two ATP’s are produced during this process for each molecule of glucose. The end result of the citric acid cycle is 4 CO molecules, 6 NADH molecules, 2 ATP molecules and 2 FADH2 molecules. The process is part of the conversion...
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...Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients intoadenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve the redox reaction (oxidation of one molecule and the reduction of another). Respiration is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy to fuel cellular changes. Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). Bacteria and archaea can also be lithotrophsand these organisms may respire using a broad range of inorganic molecules as electron donors and acceptors, such as sulfur, metal ions, methane or hydrogen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic.[1] ------------------------------------------------- Aerobic respiration Aerobic respiration (red arrows) is the main means by which both plants and animals utilize energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis (green arrow). Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). Although carbohydrates,fats, and proteins can all be processed and consumed as reactant, it is the preferred method ofpyruvate breakdown...
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...Cellular Respiration — Objectives — Equation for Cellular Respiration — Electron Carriers and Redox Reactions — Process of Cell Respiration — Glycolysis — Prep Reaction — Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) — Electron Transport Chain — Fermentation — The Ingredients — You already know what is needed for Cellular Respiration Food + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide+ Water +ENERGY! C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 +H2O + ATP — Redox Reactions (the shuffling of electrons) • Most of the reactions involved in the process are possible because of the redox reaction of NAD, an electron carrier • Oxidation – a reaction in which a substance loses electrons C6H1206 CO2 • Reduction – a reaction in which a substance gains electrons O2 H2O • Oxidation always occurs with reduction = Redox Reaction — NAD: An Electron Carrier — NAD+ gains an electron to become NAD — NAD gains a hydrogen to become NADH — This can also occur with the electron carrier FAD — Cellular Respiration — The means in which the cell produces energy — Often consists of 4 Steps: — Glycolysis — Prep Reaction — Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) — Electron Transport Chain — Glycolysis • Occurs in the cytosol • Begins with a molecule of glucose (a 6 carbon sugar) • Uses the energy of 2 ATP to split the stable glucose into 2 unstable molecules each containing 3 carbons • Now all processes occur twice ...
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...Abstract In common metabolic biochemistry human burns fuel (food) and generate energy. This energy is responsible off doing all types of processes of her body. Human body work in a very complex way when there is a demand on working muscles. During running so many changes are noticeable in human body. Those changes are faster heartbeat, sweating, hurting of muscles and very fast and deep breathing. These things consider normal doing marathon run. In order for runners to run marathon they have to train their body with hours of training. These trainings prepare their different body areas for example heart, lungs and red blood cells. Red blood cells are train so they can release maximum oxygen for muscle use during marathon run. Before the actual race to start runners brain prepared their body for “flight or fight” process. This is done by releasing epinephrine which is also known as Adrenaline. The chemical formula of adrenaline is C9H13NO3. With the release of epinephrine runner’s body get ready for action. Muscles are used in any type of exercise according to Shuo Qing, “during running muscles are working to accelerate body and keep it moving”. Muscles generate force by using energy. In human body, muscle work as an electric motors. They use the chemical called adenosine dry phosphate (ATP) for the source of energy. Three different types of food Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can be used to generate ATP. But mostly Carbohydrates in the form of sugar or glucose molecules are the...
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...56 Define the following terms: Cellular respiration (aerobic respiration) (2 points) Cellular respiration is the process by which cells get their energy in the form of ATP. There are two types of cellular respiration, aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic respiration is more efficient and can be used in the presence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration, or cell respiration using oxygen, uses the end product of glycolysis in the TCA cycle to produce more energy currency in the form of ATP than can be obtained from an anaerobic pathway. Fermentation (anaerobic respiration) (2 points) Fermentation is a metabolic process converting sugar to acids, gases or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, but also in oxygen-starved human muscle cells. Fermentation is used by humans to make beer and food, like kimchi. Fermentation is a form of anaerobic digestion that generates ATP by the process of substrate-level phosphorylation. Summarize what occurs during the three steps of cellular respiration and indicate where each process takes place in the cell. (6 points) Glycolysis: It is a process that occurs in the cytoplasm. It converts each molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvic acid. It refers to an anaerobic process that proceeds whether or not oxygen is present or not. The pyruvic acid diffuses into the inner compartment of the mitochondrion where a transition reaction occurs that starts to prepare pyruvic acid for the next stage of respiration. Krebs cycle-This is...
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...Cross-Country Skiing Name Institution Physiology of exercise of Competitive cross-country skiing Recovery mechanism Competitive cross-country skiing is a strenuous endurance sport in which efficiency and energy delivery are deemed very important to achieve a high performance. Recently, shorter sprint competitions have been adopted; skiers are subjected to time-trial qualification race with three knockout heats. The heats take approximately 3-4 minutes and 20 minutes between the heats. Therefore, the ability of the skiers to reproduce subsequent technique, high efficiency, and energy is very imperative in the sport. Sessions of intense competition produce anabolic mechanism and chronic stress,...
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...P7 describe the three different energy systems and their use in sport activities ATP full name is adenosine triphosphate. It is found in cells and is a type of energy source. Your body’s cells have energy in which is ATP and most of the things that you do are powered by this, for example, such as muscle contraction, protein construction, and transportation of substrates, communication with other cells, activating heat control mechanisms, and dismantling damaged and unused structures. The alactic system uses ATP as the source of energy from the body. The alactic energy system does not need oxygen to function. This energy system is used for physical activity that includes strength, power and speed. For example deadlift and high jump. The alactic I system can give huge bursts of power in very short periods of time. However it only work for twenty seconds or so until the anaerobic lactic and aerobic energy systems take over and start to work. The one hundred metres is a good example because this type of physical activity needs short and fast bursts or energy....
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