...experiences lived throughout the course of life he stressed on the concept of self-distinctiveness and unique of each individual. Allport emphasized the interaction of personality with the societal influences and circumstances (Samuel & Ellen Green Wood, 1997, p450). Allport’s theory of traits stresses the differences between the individuals. Gordon Allport theorized that traits are of three types: cardinal, central, and secondary traits. The cardinal traits are persistent, shape the individual’s behavior and attitude, and therefore determine his /her personality. Central traits are general traits that are common in so many people. Secondary traits are less pervasive, and ineffective in shaping the personality. However, they are seeing in certain circumstances. In another hands, the psychologist Hans Eysenk proposed that personality traits are of three types: antisocial, introversion-extroversion and emotionally stable. Meanwhile, the psychologist Lewis Goldberg developed a new theory in which he proposed a five-dimension personality model known as the Big Five. The Big Five theory includes the important and crucial traits of the personality. Openness to experience, versus Reticence. Conscientiousness versus, Disorganized and Impulsive. “Extroversion versus Reserved”. In addition, Freudian psychodynamic theory hypnotized that an individual’s behavior and personality in adulthood determined by the age of five years and the influenced by the early childhood experiences...
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...experiences lived throughout the course of life he stressed on the concept of self-distinctiveness and unique of each individual. Allport emphasized the interaction of personality with the societal influences and circumstances (Samuel & Ellen Green Wood, 1997, p450). Allport’s theory of traits stresses the differences between the individuals. Gordon Allport theorized that traits are of three types: cardinal, central, and secondary traits. The cardinal traits are persistent, shape the individual’s behavior and attitude, and therefore determine his /her personality. Central traits are general traits that are common in so many people. Secondary traits are less pervasive, and ineffective in shaping the personality. However, they are seeing in certain circumstances. In another hands, the psychologist Hans Eysenk proposed that personality traits are of three types: antisocial, introversion-extroversion and emotionally stable. Meanwhile, the psychologist Lewis Goldberg developed a new theory in which he proposed a five-dimension personality model known as the Big Five. The Big Five theory includes the important and crucial traits of the personality. Openness to experience, versus Reticence. Conscientiousness versus, Disorganized and Impulsive. “Extroversion versus Reserved”. In addition, Freudian psychodynamic theory hypnotized that an individual’s behavior and personality in adulthood determined by the age of five years and the influenced by the early childhood experiences...
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...International Business Management Chapter Two Understanding the Role of Culture __________________________________________________ What is meant by the culture of society, and why is it important for international managers to understand it? What is meant by the culture of society, Explain how culture affects all aspects of international management? Culture A set of shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of a society, and passed on to succeeding generations. A critical skill for managing people and processes in other countries is cultural savvy that is, a working knowledge of the cultural variables affecting management decisions. Managers have often seriously underestimated the significance of cultural factors. According to numerous accounts, many blunders made in international operations can be attributed to a lack of cultural sensitivity. Examples abound. Scott Russell, senior vice president for human resources at Cendant Mobility in Danbury, Connecticut, recounts the following An American company in Japan charged its Japanese HR manager with reducing the workforce. The Japanese manager studied the issue but couldn’t find a solution within cultural Japanese parameters; so when he came back to the Americans, he reduced the workforce by resigning—which was not what they wanted.. Cultural sensitivity, or cultural empathy, is an awareness and an honest caring about another...
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...retention. Why is customer retention essential? Key Terms: • Consumer behavior 23 • Consumer decision making 36 • Customer retention 30 • Customer Satisfaction 29 • Customer value 29 • Market segmentation 28 • Market targeting 28 • Market concept 26 • Marketing mix 28 • Personal consumer 23 • Organizational consumer 23 • Positioning 28 • Societal marketing concept 27 Chapter 2: Consumer Research 1. What is the difference between primary and secondary research? Under what circumstances might the availability of secondary data make primary research unnecessary? What are some major sources of secondary data? 2. What are the advantages and limitations of secondary data? 3. Why might a researcher prefer to use focus group rather than depth interviews? When might depth interviews be preferable? 4. How would the interpretation of survey results change if the researcher used a probability sample rather than a nonprobability sample? Explain your answer. Key Terms: • Attitude sales 61 • Behavior intention scale 61 • Controlled experiment 55 • Depth interview 47 • Experimentation 55 • Probability sample 63 • Quantitative research 42 • Secondary data 44 • Telephone interview surveys 56 • Exploratory study 43 • Focus group 48 • Likert scale 61 • Mail surveys 57 • Projective techniques 52 • Reliability 58 • Personal interview surveys 56 • Nonprobality sample 63 • Observation research...
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...cognitive biases and errors you have made. **Social cognition: Study of how people think about people and social relationships. -What is unique about thinking about people as opposed to thinking about something else, like frogs or computers? Why is it important to study how people think about people? -How is argumentative thinking helpful? Why would arguing with others help with human survival? **Thinking Cognitive Miser: Exemplified by having errors in thinking. Reluctance to do much extra thinking. -During free time, why do most people choose to think about a subject such as baseball, but not about a subject such as calculus? **Automatic and deliberate thinking How does the Stroop Effect (colors and words) illustrate automatic versus deliberate thought? How do we know if a thought is automatic? -Requires no awareness -not guided by intention -not subject to deliberate control -effort is low Schemas: information about a concept. Ex/Schema for exams = involves multi paged paper and #2 pencil. Scripts: Schemas about certain events. How an experience and an event will play out. Ex/ For exam… come into class, cram before instructor says put materials away, administered exam, then when finished… brought up to instructor. Priming: Activating a concept in the mind. Framing: Presentation as positive or negative - Would your rather eat beef that’s 10% fat or 90% lean. -How do gain-framed appeals and loss-framed appeals affect healthy behaviors? **Thought...
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...national cultures comprise different cultural value systems. The value systems are generated from a conception, or as noted previous beliefs, of existing means or resources, and necessities. Cultures have various standards and some factors such as behaviors, traditions or communication of one culture can be observed as irrelevant or sometimes even threatening by other cultures. These uncertainties can bring into being cultural gaps between people within a workforce. Not only do the variety of cultural structure interacting together increase the potential for conflict or disagreement, but also methods of control disputation among the cultures. The project manager must be able to handleconfrontation using different styles, depending on the circumstances, in order to effectively manage a diverse team. This paper discusses the most well-known and accepted theories of cultural differences and illustrates them with cases from international project management. Two leading studies of cross-cultural management have been conducted by Geert Hofstede and FonsTrompenaars. Both frameworksoffer a set of cultural dimensions along which core values can be obtained. These structures influence on human thinking, feeling, performance, and the behavior of organizations and institutions in predictable practice. The two sets of measurements indicate basic difficulties that any culture has to deal with but for which solutions are in dispute. They are similar in some respects and different in...
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...One experiment was conducted to determine whether background features of a commercial affected product preferences when only minimal product information was presented. A second experiment examined the relative importance of background features and product information in different situations. The impact of product information in a commercial on beliefs and attitudes would typically be interpreted within an information processing framework. It is suggested here that a classical conditioning framework could account for the potential impact of background features on product attitudes. Classical Gerald J. Gorn is a professor in the Faculty of Commerce and Business Administration, University of British Columbia. The author would like to thank the Institut D'administration des Entreprises, University AixMarseille, France, for its helpful assistance in formulating and pretesting the project. 9 4 / Journal of Marketing, Winter 1982 Do features like humor, sex, color, and music in a commercial merely increase our attention to product information in a message, or can they directly influence our attitudes? The results of an experiment using a classical conditioning approach suggest that hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product can directly affect product preferences. A second experiment differentiated communication situations where a classical conditioning approach or an information processing approach might be appropriate in explaining...
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...A. Expressive Theory Formerly “Expressionism” is a German movement in painting but later on, it extended its access to other literary arts too. Expressive criticism treats a literary work primarily in relation to the author. It defines poetry as an expression, or overflow, or utterance of feeling, or as the products of poet’s feelings. The theory tends to judge the work by its sincerity to the poets’ vision or the state of mind. Such views were developed mainly by the Romantic critics and remain current in our time too. Wordsworth’s definition of poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquility” is taken as the ground idea of the expressive theory of art. The most powerful impetus in expressive critical thought was the Romantic Movement that began in late eighteenth century. This movement has deeply affected our modern consciousness and the common sense discourse of literary commentary. The three key concepts associated with this movement are: imagination, genius and emotion. Expressive theorists firmly stick to these three key terms. They believe that authorial individuality is something to be conveyed by a literary work, and to go beyond objectivist theorists’ prescription that a poet’s effort should be to flee personality and that criticism should focus on the poem not on the poet. Wordsworthian notion that “a poem is inner made outer” puts an emphasis on the poet in a poem, and this emphasis has never eased. B. Objective Theory ...
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...Nisbett. The purpose of this article was to understand the cultural differences in casual cognition. It was believed that casual beliefs differ among countries but essentially individuals come to the same judgments. Over the past decades, many psychologists believed that cognitive reasoning are all the same in all cultures. However, East Asian and American causal reasoning differs drastically. Culture-specific mentalities in East Asia and the West identified with the reasoning behind the differences in casual cognition. The East Asian mentality was said to be holistic, centering consideration on the field in which the item is found and attributing causality by reference to the relationship between the subject and the field. The Western attitude on the other hand, is diagnostic, centering consideration on the object, sorting it by reference to its qualities, and crediting causality taking into account rules about it....
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...This report will describe a life stage within human development and behaviour. The report will then describe a personal observation that relates to this life stage, this observation will include behaviours, attitudes and interactions of that stage. These behaviours and attitudes will describe relevant concepts and ideas based on two theorists and in relation to my chosen life stage. These theorists concepts will link together my personal observation and the chosen life stage. This observational report is based on the life stage of adolescence. In 1996, I was a fifteen year old student attending Tikipunga High School. I was never to sure on any given day whom I really was. My choice of clothing was little to go on as every day brought a new look, a new me. One day id have that apparent gangsta look, baggy jeans and a hooded sweatshirt then the next day id be dressed like Julie Andrews, from The sound of music! Blouse, skirt and a much more conservative hairstyle. According to J.Campbell (personal communication, June 20th 2013.) I would not only change my style of dress my attitude would adjust in relation to whatever dress sense I choose. For example I would ouite often have an attitude of ignorance and staunchness to match my 'gangsta' look, whereas I tended to be a whole new person when dressed like Julie Andrews, behaving alit more conservative and polite. I simply asked my self regularly, " who am I?", "where do i fit in?" And "where will I end up?". This...
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...Given Focus: Regulating individual behavior is the basic yet essential approach to managing organizational output. Analysis: Value and personality + other factors e.g. cultural or physical environments → Individual behavior → Organizational output Content 1. Organizational Output by Individual Behavior 2. Individual Behavior 2.1 Definition 2.2 Types & Causes 2.2.1 Task Performance 2.2.2 Organizational Citizenship 2.2.3 Counterproductive Work Behaviors 2.2.4 Joining and Staying with the Organization 2.2.5 Maintaining Work Attendance 3. Value & Individual Behavior 4. Personality & Individual Behavior 5. Conclusion 1. Organizational Output by Individual Behavior Some people say organizational output is affected by individual behavior. To examine the statement, let us firstly take a look at individual behavior. 2.2.3 Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWBs) Counterproductive work behaviors are known as voluntary behaviors that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization1. These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations. The variety of acts that are considered CWBs has led to attempts by researchers to create a coherent typology of CWBs. One four-class typology of CWBs divided the CWBs into the following categories: 1. Production deviance - involving poor attendance behaviors like leaving early, intentionally working slow, or taking unnecessarily long breaks; 2...
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...1. What is personality * Personality can be defined as the sum of ways in which an individuals reacts and interacts with other. * Personality can be defined to as organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that determine ones persona. * A dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. Personality looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits. 2. What is the Myber-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)? The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is one of the most widely used personality frameworks—Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). A 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. Individuals are classified as * Extroverted or introverted (E or I). * Sensing or intuitive (S or N). * Thinking or feeling (T or F). * Perceiving or judging (P or J). These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. There is no hard evidence that the MBTI is a valid measure of personality. a) Extraversion (E) - Introversion (I) The extraversion-introversion dichotomy was first explored by Jung...
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...difference of opinion with the CFO over an accounting or financial reporting manner? A. If the CFO does not agree to correct the financial statements B. The CEO supports the CFO and does not agree to correct the financial statements C. The external auditors support the CEO and do not agree to correct the financial statements D. The audit committee should always be the first to be informed about such a difference of opinion 3. "Treating others fairly" encompasses treating them: A. Equally, impartially, and responsibly B. Equally, responsibly, and openly C. Impartially, openly, and diligently D. Equally, impartially, and openly 4. Objectivity requires that a CPA should: A. Maintain a mental attitude of impartiality B. Maintain a mental attitude of intellectual honesty C. Be free of conflicts of interest D. All of the above 5. The method of ethical reasoning that deals with making decisions after considering the interests of others is: A. Egoism B. Enlightened Egoism C. Utilitarianism D. Rights Theory 6. Deontology deals with A. Emphasizes rights of others B. Consequences of actions C. Following prescribed virtue characteristics D. Following the law as an element of ethical behavior 7. Under the IMA's standards of ethical practice, an accounting professional can consider informing authorities or individuals not employed by the organization when an ethical dilemma occurs about an accounting or...
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...Journal Entry 4 – Occasional Socialization & Police Culture 2- Shedding Light on Police Culture: An Examination of Officers' Occupational Attitudes • Police culture research posits that officers collectively hold positive attitudes toward aggressive stops of cars and checking out people as well as favorable attitudes toward selective enforcement of laws • Typology studies of police contrast the notion that all officers see the world through the same lens and suggest that officers might cope with the strains of their occupation differently • Changes in the demographics of police personnel (i.e., more females, racial minorities, and college-educated officers) as well as changes in policing philosophies (i.e., community policing) over the past...
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... ROLL NO-60 Q1. What is meant by the term culture? In what way can measuring attitudes about the following help to differentiate between cultures: centralized or decentralized decision making, safety or risk, individual or group rewards, high or low organizational loyalty, cooperation or competition? Use these attitudes to compare the United States, Germany, and Japan. Based on your comparisons, what conclusions can you draw regarding the impact of culture on behavior? Ans:- culture is defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization. Culture is the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior (Hodges, 2005). Centralized versus decentralized cultures are different in which the top managers or leaders make all the important decisions in a centralized culture and in a decentralized culture, the decisions are made throughout the levels. Safety and risk in some cultures are frowned upon because the results are unpredictable yet other cultures are “riskier” and encourage risk taking on all levels. The same can be said about individual versus group rewards. Some societies or organizations reward individually and other only based on the group effort. High or low organizational loyalty in...
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