...CS 331 – Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Assignment 2 Solution 1. A new operator ⊕, or exclusive-or, may be defined by the following truth table: P T T F F P⊕Q F T T F Q T F T F Create a propositional calculus expression using only ^, v, and ~ that is equivalent to P ⊕ Q. Prove their equivalence using truth tables. One possible correct answer is: P ⊕ Q ≡ (P v Q) ^ ~(P ^ Q) Proof using truth tables: P T T F F Q T F T F (P v Q) T T T F (P ^ Q) T F F F ~(P ^ Q) F T T T (P v Q) ^ ~(P ^ Q) F T T F P⊕Q F T T F 2. The logical operator “ ” is read “if and only if.” P Q is defined as being equivalent to (P Q) ^ (Q P). Based on this definition, show that P Q is logically equivalent to (P v Q) (P ^ Q) using truth tables. Truth Table for (P P T T F F Q) ^ (Q Q T F T F Truth Table for (P v Q) P T T F F Q T F T F P) P -> Q T F T T Q -> P T T F T (P Q) ^ (Q P^Q T F F F (P v Q) P) T F F T (P ^ Q) PvQ T T T F (P ^ Q) T F F T Hence shown that both expressions are logically equivalent. 3. Assuming this is a game in which animals attack each other, try to represent the following situation completely using first-order logic: You have to represent the following facts: a. The location (air/ground) of the animals b. The abilities of the animals (e.g. flying) c. The relative speed of the animals (slow/fast) d. Line-of-sight status (animal A is visible to animal B) Answers can be moderately different from the following suggested answer: is_at_location(turtle, ground)...
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...axioms, what is the need to prove it? Does it not reflect the inability of a person to actually see the ‘obvious’ when he is searching for proofs? Let me be clear that I enjoy a well written and elegant proof and am immensely discontent when I am unable to prove a seemingly obvious statement. But is not the fact that my intuition suggests that the statement has to be true reason enough? You may argue that a proof leaves nothing to chance and gives you a guarantee that the statement has to be true. But when you dissect a proof right down to its base axiom, there you will have to rely on an assumption- that our intuition deems valid. I am not here to argue on the basis of the correctness in our underlying assumption of the base axiom. Proofs are merely a way to deduce results from a given premise. And the premise here is the truth of the axiom. I am uncomfortable about the fact that people are willing to accept the intuition behind the base axiom but not the intuition behind the results that follow. True, in most cases it is easier to be aware of the former- and the latter may be hard to see as obvious. A case in point would be Fermat’s last theorem. Andrew Wiles did come up with an absolutely marvellous proof of the theorem- something that puzzled the greatest minds for three and a half centuries. But in those three and a half centuries, what if some person saw it as obvious. Does he/she have to prove it in Wiles’ way or any other way to actually believe in it? Indeed Fermat himself...
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...launches. Such as system outage and employee coverage that can potentially affect the success of the weekend launch. It is always important to think outside the box and be creative. With the launch of the new phone I created ways were the high increase in traffic would be managed by providing them with beverages and there was a kid corner to minimize the parent’s nerves. I also planned a week in advance a time frame to market the launch of the phone. Sometimes to be creative one needs to go outside your four walls which is especially true in the sales industry. Free will, truth, knowledge and opinion all affect the thoughts and visions that people have. People have the free will to make decisions, choices and create their personal view of things in life. Truth can be hard to define as everyone sees the truth in different ways. We can tend to see the truth in different way and build our own perception of the truth. Knowledge is developed though facts, information and life experiences. Knowledge provides people with the ability to make decision based on the information they have compiled through school and life experiences. On the other hand opinion is people vision or view on things that affects...
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...Suppose you know something embarrassing about someone or know something secretive about something involving them, but you don’t want them to get hurt by telling them the truth. Wouldn’t you want to mask yourself? To support this reason, I have great evidence from a book called “Space Case”, by Stuart Gibbs. In Space Case, NASA has figured out how to develop a civilization on the moon. Unfortunately, there was a death there head base called “Moon Base Alpha” and only the headmaster of the base, Nina, knows what really happened. This supports my claim because Nina is trying to protect the citizens of Moonbase Alpha from finding out that the death was indeed a murder, also, this is beneficial because no one is getting harmed by knowing the truth. Some more evidence that supports this reason is in the “My Dad is a liar!” video. In this video the little girl’s dad puts on the persona that they are living a happy and good life, so he doesn’t put self-doubt in his daughter’s mind. This supports my claim because the girl’s dad is lying to her for the girl’s own good own good, and this is very beneficial because the girl is not getting pessimistic about her supposed “happy” life. Although, it is good, to tell the truth, sometimes lying is better than telling the...
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..."The Truth " Do you agree and promise to tell the truth and nothing but the truth? This is the question our United States high ranking judges ask the prosecutor. Why do we contradict ourselves, like in the situation of the Atomic bomb and us having to lie about us killing and hurting many people, telling people evidential videos were destroyed, lying and telling people we hit their army base. Are we who we say we are or just a lie? When the bomb hit Nagasaki everyone that it was a big success for revenge for what the Japanese did to Pearl harbor. People walking around thinking of our success as a wonderful thing making the Japanese surrender because of the destruction of their " army base". People not knowing of the fact that we hit a highly populates suburb of normal harmless people some on their way to work, kids on their way to school just killed for something they didn't even do. Once people figured out that we have killed thousands of innocent people, they started to rethink America's lifestyle. People cursed us they thought we were extremist. The worst part is that the harmful radiation was still killing people, what have we done? The only proof we had was forced to be hidden by U.S Generals. Until one day at a film fest the clip was shown. There was no serious reaction from the Americans until a situational stir up by the press that had made a very emotional reaction from most Americans questioning our...
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...understanding. Well doesn’t the definition give you some insight? Both depend on one another to truly come to a conclusion, if a higher power exists or not? Merely a use of human reasoning and not the latter would lead us to an infinite search of the truth. Now, I want the reader to notice the two very distinct meanings, one involves human reasoning, the other involves spiritual understanding. An example of the secular meaning is in William Paley’s “The Argument of Design” he mentions the watch and how we come to a conclusion that the watch must a have a maker. We as humans base our conclusions on “examinations and some previous knowledge of the subject” (Paley 5). We could say, this applies to science and philosophy as a whole, they rely upon human reasoning. Now, the watch mentioned by Paley, he explains how something built with complexity could not just come to existence without having had a maker. This falls under the secular meaning of faith, in which based off our observations, past knowledge of craftsmanship, and human reasoning an object such as a watch could be created into existence. Even though we could not explain the other parts of the watch, it does not discredit our ruling of the conclusion or derides the confidence “in its truth” (Paley...
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...World Religions Report Beverly Ross HUM/130 Kenneth Dietz December 17, 2010 Credentials are important when you are choosing a religion. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe in the Bible as the guiding source based on worthy credentials. Their truths are based on the sacred writings of the Bible. For example Genesis 1:1 says: There is one almighty God and Creator who made all things. They believe in one creator who has a name, and that name is Jehovah. Jehovah’s Witnesses are members of a World Wide Christian Religion who share with others information about God and his son, Jesus Christ. They base their belief mainly on the principles found in the Holy Bible, and view first century Christianity as their source. Their founder is Charles Taze Russell whose background and study of the Bible led him to conclude that hellfire does not exist, God is not a Trinity, and that 1914 marked the second coming of Christ. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that all scriptures are inspired of God and beneficial, but some people have even claimed that they are not even Christians. They believe that “There is not another name under heaven that has been given among men by which we must get saved, which is Jesus Christ”. That is quoted in Acts 4:12 of the Bible. They believe that God is greater than Jesus, and that Jesus himself acknowledged that: “The Father is greater that I am,” (John 14:28) they also believe that they should be like Jesus by making God’s name...
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...his predecessors, preferring to work out everything for himself. He was the first man to attempt this since Aristotle. There was freshness about his work that had not been seen from any philosopher since Plato. To begin by doubting everything was the necessary first step in order to sweep away all past presumptions and eliminate all issues that were confusing human knowledge. He also isolated only those truths he himself could directly experience and substantiate. This approach of questioning and skeptical nature meant that Descartes was able to make breakthroughs in philosophy not available to earlier philosophers who had accepted other people’s views as true. The existence of God has been a question since the idea of God was conceived. Rene Descartes tries to prove God's existence, and to show that there is without a doubt something external to ones own existence. He is looking for a definite certainty, a foundation for which he can base all of his beliefs and know that they are true. Descartes' overall project is to find a definite certainty on which he can base all his knowledge and beliefs. I totally agree with Descartes belief that there is a God. In this paper I will discuss Descartes basic philosophy, his 3 reasons there is a god, and lack of souls in animals. Almost all things should be doubted, but Descartes introduces his method of radical doubt. His radical doubt is the method of not accepting anything as true unless it hits you as distinctively true. ...
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...• How does the theorist define his subject? what concept of religion does he develop as he proceeds? Sigmund Freud bases his theory as Neurosis. He bases his theories on stories made up within ones imagination. This theory is based off many different beliefs that can be suspicious of being a made up story that is passed down to many. Sigmund Freud questions many religions on whether they are worth believing or not. He defines his theory as the way an individual interprets their belief and see what psychoanalysis you can find in a person. Freud's basis of his theory is that religions are human constructions made in the mind. He states that the designs for these constructions are built differently to alleviate anxiety. Freud doesn't really go deep towards one religion, however, he defines religion as an illusion in the brain called Neurosis. T • what type of theory is being offered? Since, as we have seen, theories can be of quite different kinds, what specific form of explanation is offered in each case, and why? You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free; and psychotherapy is a journey toward the truth, for Freud. The type of theory that is being offered is one where the way one's life is going is how you will live. This promotes the mind capability to be able to think freely, according to Freud. The specific form of explanation is that everything is an illusion and an attempt to get control over the sensory world. You build your own religion based on what's...
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...lying should be forbidden in daily bases, like the first case- If someone tells you a lie to make you feel better is that right? Maybe no, but only that person knows the truth. I think is personal decision if you decide to lie in order to make someone feel better. To me people do this to express kindness or just to make you feel comfortable around you or just to get to know you to break the ice and start conversation. But what about if these people are comfortable with themselves to lie to get people’s attention, what if they start lying to get better job or even worst, to me ones you start using a small lies here and there on daily bases you might going to start using them all the time and in some point everything you say will be lies. I do agree with Kant’s argument, people should not lie to get someone else’s attention, I am coming from different country where was very different and people would not compliment you if they don’t really think whatever they say. Here people compliments each other all the time and I am not very sure if that’s all truth, or they just say things? We wont know, its their own decision to tell a lie or not, to me I will always find a way to talk to people and still make them feel good around me without telling lies. The second case is where you can use a lie to safe someone’s life. In Kant’s argument he still think that even in this situations you shouldn’t go in between and try not to blame yourself you tell the truth knowing that someone’s life is dependent...
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...Philosophy and Psychology The links in the table on the left take you to sub-headings on this page. |. |Philosophy can mean different things | | |Sometimes philosophers deal with questions of truth and sometimes with questions of goodness ; | | |sometimes they offer consolation for life’s sorrows and sometimes they are purely pragmatic. In | | |the philosophy of science, a theory may be valued only for its predictive capability ; its truth | | |or falsity may be immaterial. In ethics, philosophy may have a prescriptive function, offering a | | |preferred set of values ; but where those values originate from is a debatable question. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ...
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...Jamieson said, “Reagan is to television what FDR was to radio.” It can also be argued that Trump is to social media what Reagan was to television. Trump has completely changed the way politicians reach the public. Trump can speak directly to his base in a matter of seconds, without the hand of the media playing even a minor role. Jamieson said that Reagan completely changed the idea of intimacy when it came to a president, because “we expect intimacy to occur between individuals, not between an individual and a mass audience.” Twitter allows increased intimacy with the president, which in turn allows greater trust and a feeling of connectedness between the public and the president. But this sense of trust must not be taken for granted. Jamieson argues that though new technology, television in Reagan’s case and social media in Trump’s case, may provide advantages for a president, it may also lead to the loss of trust. Without the “gatekeeping” effect of the media, politicians may be more inclined to stretch the truth and even tell the public blatant untruths. The idea that the president should not have a command of the facts can be dangerous. In Reagan’s speech about Irangate, he conceded that he is not the repository of either fact or truth, but that event established the need for the president to be a leader and be truthful when in times of chaos or confusion. “The...
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...hard know what happened on the planes before they were crashed into the Twin Towers, but once the passengers saw what was happening they could have really changed the future of the United States if they used critical and creative thinking. Nothing good could have come from the terrorists taking over those planes that day. 171 Free will is to use the ability to do whatever one wants to or has the ability to do. Truth would be a compilation of facts. Knowledge is having information that we are familiar with or have learned or at least an understanding of. Opinion is a view or belief about information or a situation that has been experienced. We usually tend to use free will in making our own decisions on what we want to do or how we act in certain situations. We have the right to make up our own minds about those situations and act upon that accordingly. If we think something is ok then we would be more likely to do it and not worry so much about the consequences. We use truth to think positively about information or situation based on facts that we know are real. The truth helps us understand just how and why something has happened or how something works. We use knowledge every day to help us grow in our learning and understanding everything that...
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...self-evident axioms. Among these are that logic and mathematics are at the core of truth, that the scientific method is effective in discerning the truth, and that observable phenomenon is a reflection of reality. These I take on faith so long as they yield results which are self-consistent. I also allow myself beliefs which are not provable even from these axioms, but for which there exists no contradictory evidence. However, there is no conviction I hold so strongly that I consider it infallible. All beliefs should be challenged, and I am constantly revising my beliefs to cater to logic and nature. Still, I can and must have some beliefs for which there is no proof, but none for which there exists evidence that contradicts them. Above all, we must believe logic and mathematics are the keys to truth. All provably true results are a result of logic, and all results are consistent with one another. This must be taken on faith, for it serves as our only way of objectively approaching truth. Some people have suggested the possibility that we may someday find that logic and mathematics do not govern truth and that indeed there is some more accurate approach we ought to be taking. This, of course, would be a very difficult point to argue to someone who believes logic is key to reality. That aside, logic is embedded in the human brain. It seems to govern thought itself. We accept logic and math as the path to truth because the results they yield are verifiable. Denying logic the right to...
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...Ethical Concerns of Consumer Tracking Name SOC 120: Introduction to Ethics & Social Responsibility Instructor September 2014 Ethical Concerns of Consumer Tracking The practice of consumer tracking has become commonplace through various public avenues, but there are certain aspects of this practice that could be construed as an invasion of privacy. There are so many activities that can be monitored in today’s technologically driven society. Retail outlets and other organizations have countless reasons to track their consumer or client base. The ethical concern is determining where to draw the line when collecting data or monitoring activity. Many companies will use the classical ethical theory of utilitarianism as the basis for collecting data from their consumer or client base. Kurt Mosser describes utilitarianism as an action that is chosen because it produces the best possible results for the greatest number of people (Mosser, 2013). At the corporate level, data is often collected to strengthen the operational processes of the business. This practice is often considered harmless by the businesses involved because their intent is not to use the accumulated personal information for any reason other than to improve the business. While previously working at the corporate headquarters for a retail organization, I was able to observe the practice of consumer tracking as it evolved. This particular organization purchased precious...
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