...This essay has 2462 words ‘Behaviourists explain maladaptive behaviour in terms of the learning principles that sustain and maintain it. Discuss this statement and show how a behaviourists approach to therapy is in stark contrast to a psychoanalytic one’ Behaviorism was originally founded by John B. Watson who believed that behavior had the means to be measured, trained and changed (1913) The Behavioural theory is firstly based on experiment and secondly by describing how human behaviour is learnt through principles and rules. Maladaptive behaviour is when an individual is unable to adjust to situations; psychologists use this term to describe patterns of emotional disturbance. Both behavioural and psychoanalytic psychologists use this in different ways. The behavioural theory is based on two main factors being biological drives such as primitive needs and sex drive and what is learnt. The three main principles in the behavioural theory are Stimuli, response and conditioning. Behaviour is believed to be a conditioned response to an environmental stimulus. Individuals are obliged to react to stimuli using their senses such as seeing and hearing. There are short lived unlearned behaviours such as suckling and unlearned grasping. Responses are overt and implicit, learned or unlearned. Response can be foreseen if stimuli are available and stimuli can be predicted from the response. Unlearned responses are automatic such as breathing heavily and perspiring when running. Unlearned...
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...Psychology as a whole has stemmed from a number of different areas of study from Physics to Biology, but the first psychological foundations are rooted in philosophy, which to this day propels psychological inquiry in areas such as language acquisition, consciousness and even vision among many others. While the great philosophical distinction between mind and body in western thought can be traced to the Greeks, it is to the influential work of René Descartes, French mathematician, philosopher and physiologist, that we owe the first systematic account of the mind and body relationship. As the 19th century progressed, the problem of the relationship of mind to brain became ever more pressing. The word psychology comes from two Greek words: Psyche and Logos. The term ‘psychology’ used early on described the study of the spirit. It was in the 18th century when psychology gained its literal meaning: The study of behavior. In studies today psychology is defined as the scientific and systematic study of human and animal behavior. The term psychology has a long history but the psychology as an independent discipline is fairly new. Psychology started, and had a long history, as a topic within the fields of philosophy and physiology. It then became an independent field of its own through the work of the German, Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology and structuralism. Wundt stressed the use of scientific methods in psychology, particularly...
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...to describe the processes of the mind as flows ofpsychological energy (Libido) in an organically complex brain.[2] The theory supporting psychodynamic therapy originated by the psychoanalytic theory. There are four major schools of psychoanalytic theory, each of which has influenced psychodynamic therapy. The four schools are: Freudian, Ego Psychology, Object Relations, and Self Psychology. Psychodynamic theory is also known as insight-oriented which focuses on the unconscious processes which are manifested and show up in a person’s behaviors. The goals of psychodynamic therapy are a client’s self-awareness and understanding of the influence on past on present behavior. Cognitive The term cognitive psychology came into use with the publication of the bookCognitive Psychology by Ulric Neisser in 1967. Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people tick then the way to do it is to figure out what processes are actually going on in their minds. Cognition literally means “knowing”. In other words, psychologists from this approach study cognition which is ‘the mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired.’ Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in this: - o Dissatisfaction with the behaviourist approach in its simple emphasis on external behaviour rather than internal processes o The development of better experimental methods o The start of the use of computers allowed...
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...“Behaviorists explain maladaptive behaviour in terms of the learning principles that sustain and maintain it. Discuss this statement and show how a behaviourist’s approach to therapy is in stark contrast to a psychoanalytic one”. I will begin my essay by describing the development of behaviourism. This will show how its roots are completely different from those of psychoanalysis. It will also reveal something of the methodology of behaviourism and the principles behind it. This will provide the ground for developing a fuller description of maladaptive behaviour and those elements that 'maintain and sustain' it. I will conclude by contrasting the positions of the Behaviourist and the Analytical Psychologist underlining the ethical issues involved. The first striking contrast between psychoanalysis and behaviourism lies in the fact that the former was developed in Europe in order to meet the therapeutic needs of patients while the latter grew out of the Progressive Movement (P.M.1880-1920) in the United States. This movement arose from three main sources: 1.The industrial revolution. 2. Scientific Rationalism. 3. Liberal political philosophy. The P.M. wanted scientific thinking that had created a new society so swiftly, to be brought to bear on every aspect of life. 'Progressives transformed, professionalized and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science’. (Wikipedia) According to the P.M. The...
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...It is from Ivan Pavlov’s (1849-1939) study of dogs that the behaviourist approach took the theory of classical conditioning. Behaviourism believes we learn to operate in our world by forming associations between a particular stimulus and the most appropriate behavioural response, stimulus response unit’s, which explains why we behave the way we do. Classical conditioning attempts to account for this through learning by association. Watson used this in his conditioning of his case study ‘little Albert’. He conditioned a baby to fear that which he previously had not by associating it with an instinctive fear. Watson was able to conclude from this that phobias are not a result of the unconscious, as psychoanalytic had believed, but were the result of conditioning. E.L. Thorndike’s concluded for his experiments on cats that there were two laws of learning; the law of exercise and the law of effect. The law of exercise stating that the more times a task is carried out the better we become at it; learning having taken place. The law of effect says that there is a link between our behaviour and its consequences. Thorndike showed we not only learned through Pavlov’s stimulus-response conditioned behaviours but also because behaviour has resulted in a positive outcome in the past. B.F. Skinner, influenced by Thorndike, contributed to behaviourism with the concept of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning requires a reward or unpleasant consequence during the learning process to...
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...mark essay question. Older papers (June 2006-June 2009) used to have Psychology and Science as a separate section so there are a lot of past paper questions on this particular debate. Now they are combined and you would be asked a mixture of questions from across different debates. Print off the copy of this document without the answers and use this to mark them and give yourselves targets for improvement. Specimen Paper Outline what is meant by hypothesis testing and explain the role of hypothesis testing in scientific research. (4 marks) [AO3 = 4] Up to 2 marks for definition/outline of what is meant by hypothesis testing, eg a hypothesis is a testable, predictive statement/proposition specifying the relationships between events or variables. Two further marks for explanation of the role of hypothesis testing in research, eg theories need to be tested by empirical studies, hypothesis testing allows researchers to refute or support a theory, the degree of support determines confidence in a theory. Credit references to the null hypothesis and falsification of a theory 0 8 Explain what is meant by the nature-nurture debate in psychology. (4 marks) [AOl = 2, AO2 = 2] AOl One mark for outlining the term nature; genes, innate or inherited factors. One mark for outlining the term nurture; environment, experience. AO2 Marks to be awarded for explaining the debate; a controversy within psychology that is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of a...
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...: “ BEHAVIOURISTS EXPLAIN MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOUR IN TERMS OF THE LEARNING PRINCIPLES THAT SUSTAIN AND MAINTAIN IT. DISCUSS THIS STATEMENT AND SHOW HOW A BEHAVIOURIST’S APPROACCH TO THERAPY IS IN STARK CONTRAST TO A PSYCHOANALYTIC ONE” Behaviourism is a movement within psychology that works on the principle that all behaviour is “learned” , that we were all born with a “blank slate”. Behavioural approaches use strict experimental measures to study observable behaviour ( or responses ) in relation to the environment, thus resulting in the maladaptive behavioural approaches that we employ to deal with our learning. Behaviourism was first developed in the early 20th century by an American psychologist John B Watson, who at the time was working in the field of animal psychology. He believed that all behaviour was observable and therefore scientific, and worked on the principle and study of the association between a stimulus and response. ( Watson did not deny the existence of inner experiences, but insisted that they could not be studied because they were not observable ) Watson’s stimulus and response theory of psychology claimed that all complex forms of behaviour – emotions, habits etc – are seen as composed of simple muscular and glandular elements that can be observed and measured, and that emotional reactions are learned in much the same way. Watson aimed to prove his beliefs with laboratory experiments, and one of these experiments was known as “ The Little Albert Experiment”...
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...Psychology essay PTSD case study PTSD what is post-traumatic stress disorder. Post-traumatic stress disorder is a condition of stress which is caused by an event, and now you get flashbacks. Post-traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder which is caused by an event earlier in life that is very stressful or psychologically disturbing. People with this disorder may have flashbacks and relive the event through their nightmares, and they could also have trouble sleeping at night. PTSD happens most often in soldiers and those who have been in the war due to the extreme situations that arise from it. Symptoms, Biological, Mental. The symptoms of PTSD are …. The biological symptoms of PTSD are. One of the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder is the constant feeling of danger. The symptoms are increased anxiety, experiencing the event again through flashbacks or nightmares. Another symptom is avoidance of things that remind you of the event, being unable to remember some parts of the event, and also loss of interest and feeling detached from others. Memories of the event will be intrusive. The physical symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder are dizziness, shortness of breath also possibly chronic pain and tightness in the chest. A common symptom is a feeling of intense fear. Other symptoms are persistent depressive feelings and dissociation. This disorder often coexists with anxiety or eating disorders, or depression. In the case study Andy’s initial symptoms after...
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...2008, p27). Each perspective then focuses on something more specific (Papalia et al, 2008P27). In the field of children and their development, the trend has been the same. Men like Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Ivan Pavlov, Albert Bandura, and B. F. Skinner are just a few people who have paved the road for research and the interpretation of such. There are some differences in theories that have not been proven right or wrong. People such as Pavlov, Skinner, Erikson, Bandura, and Piaget believe that all development happens in distinct stages. However, learning and information-processing theorists believe that development is a continual uphill climb. Among these theories there are five major perspectives on child development: (1) Psychoanalytic, which focuses on unconscious emotions and drives; (2) learning, which studies observable behavior; (3) cognitive, which analyzes thought processes; (4) contextual, which emphasizes the impact of the historical, social, and cultural context; and (5) evolutionary/ sociobiological, which considers evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behavior. In the overall development of the child, cognitive, emotional, and physical development each...
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...Review of the Roots of Youth Violence: Literature Reviews Volume 5, Chapter 2: Psychological Theories The issue of human violence is also a major topic within the academic discipline of psychology. As biosocial theorists do, psychologists focus on how individual characteristics may interact with the social environment to produce a violent event. However, rather than focus on the biological basis of crime, psychologists focus on how mental processes impact individual propensities for violence. Psychologists are often interested in the association between learning, intelligence, and personality and aggressive behaviour. In this section of the report, we briefly review some of the major psychological perspectives that have attempted to explain violent behaviour. These perspectives include the psychodynamic perspective, behavioural theory, cognitive theory and personality theory. We will also explore the possible relationship between mental illness and violence. The Psychodynamic Perspective The psychodynamic perspective is largely based on the groundbreaking ideas of Sigmund Freud. A detailed discussion of Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis is beyond the scope of this report. It is sufficient to note that Freud thought that human behaviour, including violent behaviour, was the product of “unconscious” forces operating within a person’s mind. Freud also felt that early childhood experiences had a profound impact on adolescent and adult behaviour. Freud, for example, believed that conflicts...
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...A therapeutic crossroads My client is a young woman, white, middle-class and well-educated. She came into therapy because she feels unable to proceed in any direction with her work life, or make meaningful contact with anyone apart from her partner; she has been very unhappy for a long, long time. In sessions, she often lapses into silence, unable to move or speak. Sometimes we can talk around this, and it soon became clear to both of us that this state reflects her inner relationship with her mother. She knows that her parents love her, and she loves them; but she grew up without really questioning that how she thinks, feels and acts must match what her mother expects and can cope with. Otherwise, and particularly if anger is involved, she is overwhelmed with foreboding and terrible guilt. Coming into therapy has brought these dangerous feelings to the fore; but it is as though I am her mother, and so she cannot speak. As I sit with my client in her agony of self-consciousness, I have a choice to make. I could introduce an active mode of therapy. We could take her mother out of me and put her on a cushion where, with my encouragement, she might be able to develop communication back and forth. Alternatively, we might explore the acute bodily tensions that are part of her paralysed state, to help her give voice to what they are mutely saying. I would be taking the choice of standing alongside my client so that we could face her problems together. We would be locating those problems...
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...As a health and social care practitioner it is important to have a clear understanding of the theories that underpin health and social care, understand the legalities and policies and be aware of the situation that you work within. This allows care staff to provide adequate care to the service users and allow them to feel safe knowing that they are being protected against any harm whilst protecting yourself. Social processes, such as poverty, unemployment, and disability, can impact users of health and social care services. When assisting service users it is important to have an understanding and a knowledge of various structures. Individuals that are born into poverty more than likely come from a lower socio-economic background or area and have a higher rate of being unemployed, lowering their chance opportunity. Unemployment may contribute to a person becoming poor as they might have lost a job that they already held. Mental and physical disabilities can also have an impact on unemployment as an individual may not have the same opportunities as someone who is more able. This may be the situation if an individual is either born with a disability or acquires one in later life. Poverty, unemployment and disabilities can have severe impacts on a person’s life, including depression, drug or alcohol addictions or abuse, homelessness or may lead to some mental health issues. In some cases a service user might have previous history or emotional poverty and/or domestic violence or...
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...MOODULE 2: THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING THE BEHAVIOURIST THEORY OF COUNSELLING Introduction to Theories A theory can be defined as a systematic way of explaining a fact or an event. It refers to procedure that has been put forward empirically tested that explains a situation as a phenomena. Importance of Theory in Counselling Theories help a counselor to; • Explain the existence of a behaviour by understand if how it’s conceptualized, perpetuated and its manifestations. • Theories also help a counsellor to predict behaviour. The prediction of behaviour is quite important in the cases where a client manifests destructive behaviour. • Finally theories also help a counsellor to control behaviour. This is also important in cases where behaviours are destructive. Each theory has stipulated techniques which are meant to control behaviour. Types of Theories There are several types of theories which helps a counsellor to understand, predict and control behaviour. But for this course, emphasis will be placed on the following theories: • Psychological Theory • Behaviour Theory • Poison Centred Theory • Cognitive Behavioural Theory THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Background Before the development of the psychological view point in terms of understanding, the human behaviour, in the late 18th Century and Mid 19th Century by Mesmer, Dr. John Breur, Dr. Jean Charcot among others. Psychological disorders and disturbances was mainly looked...
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...Chapter 1 What is social psychology? LEARNING OUTCOMES When you have finished studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1 Outline the main differences between experimental and critical approaches to social psychology. 2 Describe the three main ‘metaphysical battles’ between them. 3 Trace the origins of social psychology through the work of William McDougall and William James, and the contributions made by Völkerpsychologie and crowd psychology. 4 Describe the two contrasting images of ‘the person’ in social psychology. 5 Identify the roots of and describe the historical development of both experimental and critical social psychology. 6 Describe the main elements of Modernism and Postmodernism, and how these relate to contemporary social psychology. 7 Explain how these two approaches are different, and why they cannot be integrated. Introduction On a March night in 1964, Kitty Genovese was attacked by a maniac as she came home from work at 3 A.M. Thirty-eight of her Kew Gardens neighbors came to their windows when she cried out in terror – but no one came to her assistance. Even though the attack, which resulted in her death, lasted more than half an hour, no one even so much as called the police. . . . The thirty-eight witnesses to Kitty 3 4 FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES Genovese’s murder did not merely look at the scene once and then ignore it. Instead they continued to stare out, fascinated, distressed, unwilling to act but unable...
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...The basic definition of the word criminal is someone who commits offending behaviour within society (Harrower, 2001). The crime may range from petty theft to murder. Criminals are born not made is the discussion of this essay, it will explore the theories that attempt to explain criminal behaviour. Psychologists have come up with various theories and reasons as to why individuals commit crimes. These theories represent part of the classic psychological debate, nature versus nurture. Are individuals predisposed to becoming a criminal or are they made through their environment. There are various theories within the biological explanation as to why individuals commit criminal behaviour, these include: genetic theory, hereditary theory, psychosis and brain injury theory. In the next few paragraphs examples of each will be shown. The first theory to be explored is the hereditary theory, which stems from Cesare Lombroso (1876) father of criminology, (Feldman, 1993) whose studies were carried out by morphology. Lombroso tried to show a relationship between criminal behaviour and physical characteristics. Lombrosco suggested that an individual was predisposed to becoming a criminal, as a result of internal or innate characteristics, rather than environmental factors. Lombroso observed both criminals and non- criminals by their physical abnormalities, such as physical measurements and examinations. He concluded that most prisoners show the same physical abnormalities, which...
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