...! ! ! ! ! ! Western Governors University Biochemistry GRT Task 5: Lipids, The Importance of Fat in the Diet ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Melissa Robinson Student ID: 000389892 mrobi70@wgu.edu June 2015 Fat is often maligned in the media, and is often named “public enemy #1” because of the obesity epidemic that our country has been struggling against for several years. However, fat is an essential component in the human body. Fat must be taken in and used by the body to maintain health. That said, moderation is key. Too much of a good thing, can lead to other health issues, as seen by the obesity level in this country. It is important to strike a balance between healthy consumption of fats that the body needs to function, and the other end of the spectrum, too much fat or no fat at all in the diet. Below is a brief overview of how the body uses fats, known as lipids, in the body and why lipids are essential to the body’s health. A. Energy Stored as Fat Food is often shared with others socially and enjoyed for its taste and aroma. Fatty foods are often considered pleasurable to eat because they provide people with richness of flavor, texture and an overall feeling of satisfaction. However, fat in foods is not just there for pleasure. The body uses fat an energy source. The fat is stored in tissue called “adipose tissue.” A special type of molecule, called a triglyceride, is used by the body to store fat. Triglycerides are used as large, fat storage...
Words: 998 - Pages: 4
...Hindawi Publishing Corporation International Journal of Hepatology Volume 2012, Article ID 487480, 6 pages doi:10.1155/2012/487480 Review Article Acute Liver Failure Caused by Amanita phalloides Poisoning Luca Santi,1 Caterina Maggioli,1 Marianna Mastroroberto,2 Manuel Tufoni,1 Lucia Napoli,1 and Paolo Caraceni1 1 U.O. Semeiotica Medica, Department of Clinical Medicine, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Via Albertoni 15, 40138 Bologna, Italy 2 S.S.D. Liver Transplant, Department of Clinical Medicine, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Via Albertoni 15, 40138 Bologna, Italy Correspondence should be addressed to Paolo Caraceni, paolo.caraceni@unibo.it Received 4 May 2012; Accepted 11 May 2012 Academic Editor: Bruno Nardo Copyright © 2012 Luca Santi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Mushroom poisoning is a relatively rare cause of acute liver failure (ALF). The present paper analyzes the pathogenesis, clinical features, prognostic indicators, and therapeutic strategies of ALF secondary to ingestion of Amanita phalloides, which represents the most common and deadly cause of mushroom poisoning. Liver damage from Amanita phalloides is related to the amanitins, powerful toxins that inhibit RNA polymerase II resulting in a deficient protein synthesis and cell...
Words: 4886 - Pages: 20
...Enzymology and Catalytic Mechanisms GRT3 Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions. They are catalyst. Without catalyst, chemical reactions would still take place, but at a slower rate and the body wouldn’t benefit. All enzymes possess two essential properties. First, enzymes accelerate the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed and/or changed by the reaction. Second, enzymes accelerate reaction rates without changing the chemical equilibrium among reactants and products. Each enzyme has a receptor site, and they are very specific to which molecule (substrate) it will interact with. When a substrate is captured, it will either be combined to create a product or it will be broke down. Fructose is primarily metabolized in the liver. Fructose alone cannot be used as energy. It has to be broke down for use. Enzymes in the liver aid fructose metabolism. Fructose binds to the receptor site on the enzyme fructokinase. This enzyme uses ATP and ADP cycle (energy) to speed up the chemical reaction to convert fructose into Fru-1-p. Next, Fru-1-p will undergo the next reaction and will produce either DHAP or glyceraldehyde by way of the enzyme Aldolase B. (Wikipedia, 2015) As stated above, Aldolase B is active specific to the substrate Fructose-1-Phosphate. Fructose-1-phos is derived from fructose. It’s produced by fructokinase which is available in the liver. It’s converted by aldolase B into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde. A deficiency...
Words: 1179 - Pages: 5
...Smith 1 Heather Smith 477126 Biochemistry WGU August 24, 2015 Smith 2 Model of Essential Amino Acid Essential amino acids are those amino acids in which the body can not make on its own, instead they must be procured through the foods that we eat (Helmenstein). Lysine is one of the essential amino acids. Two of the chemical properties of lysine are that it is positively charged and it is hydrophilic, which means water loving so it easily dissolves in water (National Center for Biotechnology Information). Smith 3 Each NH2 contains one nitrogen atom and two hydrogen atoms represented on the diagram as intertwining pipe cleaners color coded to there respective elements (ie NH2 has blue and neon) Each CH2 contains one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms (pink and neon) OH contains one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom (orange and neon) Diagram of Protein Structure Smith 4 Dehydration : Creating a Peptide Bond Smith 5 Diagram: Peptide Bond Broken by Hydrolysis Smith 6 The Four Forces that Stabilize Proteins at Tertiary Level The tertiary structure of proteins are dictated by several factors. Non polar molecules are also hydroph...
Words: 861 - Pages: 4
...Task 4: Metabolism 1. They speed up reactions and do not change themselves, which means they can be used over and over. Enzymes help facilitate chemical reactions. Enzymes will lower the activation energy needed to start the reaction and that is how the reaction will be sped up. Enzymes are specific for certain reactions and are proteins. Not all catalysts though are enzymes. (Sanders, 2014) 2. (Gresham HS IB Biology, 2007) 3. (Hudon-Miller, S. 2012) 4 & 5. When table sugar is consumed, it is broken down into glucose and fructose. Glucose is used in the blood stream. Glucose can be stored in the liver as glycogen. Fructose does enter glycolysis, but first two steps are original to fructose. The first step involves breaking down fructose into fructose-1 phosphate by the enzyme, fructokinase. Fructose is the substrate of fructokinase and it’s product is fructose-1 phosphate. Fructose-1 phosphate is converted into DHAP and glyceraldehyde (products), by the enzyme aldolase B which will enter the glycolysis pathway. (Hudon-Miller, S. 2012) In HFI, there is an aldolase deficiency, so there is no conversion of fructose-1 phosphate into DHAP and glyceraldehyde, so they do not enter the glycolysis pathway to produce ATP or in gluconeogenesis. The fructose is still achieving phosphorylation by fructokinase, which results in a build up of fructose-1 phosphate. The liver cells are unable to utilze fructose as energy. There becomes an abundant buildup of fructose-1...
Words: 756 - Pages: 4
...1. Lipids to ATP * Hydrolysis is the first step in the breakdown of lipids. This happens in the cytoplasm, to produce fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol is then metabolized into dihydroxyacetone phosphate. This hydroxyacetone is further metabolized into one of two compounds: pyruvic acid (for energy) or glucose-6-phosphate (during gluconeogenesis). * Fatty acids are catabolized into Acetyl Coenzyme-A, during something called the fatty acid spiral, which is then transformed into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water using the electron transport chain and the citric acid cycle. * ATP is created from both the citric acid cycle and the fatty acid spiral (Brandt, n.d.). 2. Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids * Saturated fatty acids: carbons are single bonded, solid at room temperature * Unsaturated fatty acids: carbons are double bonded, liquid at room temperature (Fatty Acid, 2015) 1. Saturated Fatty Acid 2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid 3. 4. No-Fat Diets * Non-fat diets are detrimental to the body, because vitamin-D, an essential vitamin, cannot be absorbed without lipids (fats). Vitamin D is essential to the absorption of vitamin C and phosphate. Vitamin C and phosphate are necessary for bone structure, neuromuscular function, and immune function. * Lipids are also necessary for the absorption of estrogen, one of the hormones responsible for reproduction, related to fetal growth and uterine changes during pregnancy. Without fat in the diet...
Words: 298 - Pages: 2
...Biochemistry Task 2 Brandy McDowell 000499302 November 30, 2015 A. (Lyman, 2013) B. (Wolfe, 2000) (Wolfe, 2000) B. (Wolfe, 2000) (Wolfe, 2000) C. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) D. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) E. The four forces that stabilize a protein. * Hydrophobic interactions which are interactions by nonpolar amino acids. The weakest of the four types of bonds. * Hydrogen bond made up of interactions of polar or charged amino acids. The amino acids share their hydrogen. This is also a weak bond, but it is stronger than the hydrophobic interaction. * Ionic bonds are made up of charged amino acids. A positive charge of an amino acid attracts to a negative charge of another amino acid. This bond is a little stronger than the hydrogen bond, but not as strong as the polypeptide bond. * Disulfide bond only occurs between two cysteine amino acids. Two cysteine amino acids form a sulfa-sulfa bridge. This is a strong covalent interaction. (Borges, 2014) F1. Explain the role of prions in BSE, including each of the following: ●How prions are formed – Prions are malformed proteins. Instead of reproducing, the prions cause normal proteins to change to the malformed version. The normal prion (PrPc) is bound to the surface of neurons. PrPc can be altered and become misfolded taking on a different conformation which is then known as PrPsc. ●The connection between misfolding and aggregation – Because the misfolded prions are hydrophobic...
Words: 664 - Pages: 3
...A. 1. Oxygentated blood has picked up oxygen from the lungs. Deoxygenated blood has had most of its oxygen removed and needs to return to the lungs for re-oxygenation. Oxygenated blood is bright red. Deoxygenated blood is dark red. Oxygenated blood cells have a relaxed shape whereas deoxygenated blood cells have a tense shape. 2. Carbon dioxide concentration decreases as blood nears the lungs, which in return causes and increase in pH . Increased pH causes increased affinity for oxygen which causes the hemoglobin to pick up oxygen entering your blood to be transported to the body’s tissue. Hemoglobin loses hydrogen ions from specific amino acids at key sites as pH rises causing slight changes in its structure that increase its ability to bind oxygen. As pH falls hemoglobin picks up hydrogen ions and its affinity for oxygen decreases. Increasing carbon dioxide concentration in your tissues cause a decrease in pH, which in turn forces hemoglobin to dump the oxygen it's carrying so your cells can use it for energy . a. 3. B. 1. 2. 3. Diseased cells have lower than normal ability to transport oxygen. Sickle cell hemoglobin is stiff and sticky. They stick together and do not flow through vessels easily causing blockages. The blockages caused by sickle cells affect oxygen being transported to tissues in the body. 4. a. Sickle cell disease is an inherited...
Words: 338 - Pages: 2
...A. Explain how lipids, in the form of triglycerides, are broken down to produce ATP, including each of the following: Triglycerides are first broken down to fatty acids and glycerol by separating the bond between the glycerol and the fatty acid. The fatty acids undergo beta oxidation and are broken into two carbon units. The carbon subunits generate AcetylCoA. (O’Malley 2014) During beta oxidation hydrogen and electrons are removed from the fatty acids and are carried by NADH and FADH2 to the electron transport chain to generate ATP. AcetylCoA enters the citric acid cycle which removes electrons and hydrogen. NADH and FADH2 is used to carry the ions to the electron transport chain to form ATP. B. Explain two differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (not fats). A saturated fatty acids has hydrogen on all points of its chemical chain. Unsaturated fatty acids will have a pair of hydrogen missing on its chain. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature vs liquid for unsaturated. 1. Create one original 3D model to demonstrate the chemical structure of a saturated fatty acid. 2. Create one original 3D model to demonstrate the chemical structure of an unsaturated fatty acid. C. Create an original diagram, with clear labels, to demonstrate the fluid mosaic structure of cell membranes. D. Explain how nofat diets can affect the body (e.g., nutrient absorption, essential fatty acids), including each of...
Words: 469 - Pages: 2
...Biochemistry Task 1 Candy Hughes 000515305 January 1, 2016 A. (Brown, 2010) B (Ly, Sklar, Pesavento, and Sternberg., 2010) C. (Chen, 2010) (Chen, 2010) D. The death cap mushrooms produce a toxin called Amanita phalloides, this toxin can be fatal to humans. Amatoxins are comprised of a ring of amino acids that hinder the production of specific proteins within liver and kidney cells. Without these proteins, cells can no longer to function adequately. (Fisher and Bennette,2012) Amanita phalloides have the ability to inhibit an enzyme called RNA polymerase II, this enzyme allows mRNA to take place. mRNA is the processes of making a copy of DNA. In the eukaryotic cells, the amanitin toxin directly interacts with an enzyme called RNA polymerase II; thus, decreasing transcription of mRNA (Nardo, 2012). Thus causing cellular death. Reference Chen, P. (2010). Retrieved December 28,2015 from http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch17/summary.html Brown, A. (2010) Theory of Knowledge Biology Topic 3.4 DNA Replication. Retrieved December 27, 2015from http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/dna_replication/DNA-20replication.gif Fischer and Bessette. (1992) Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America. retrieved December 28,2015 from http://americanmushrooms.com/ewmona.htm Ly, M., Sklar, B., Pesavento, N., and Sternberg, Z. (2010) Retroviruses: What are Retroviruses. Retrieved...
Words: 252 - Pages: 2
...Date Sheet for Sciences General/ Core Courses/All Major Mid Term Examinations -Fall 2013 Semester Date & Day Sem 09:30 -11:00 Sec No. Room No. Teacher's Name Tooba Mohtsham Dr. Shahnaz Ch. Dr. Shahnaz Ch. Sem 11:30 -01:00 Sec No. Room No. Teacher's Name Sem Asifa Kayani Dr. Nikhat Khan 7 7 7 01:30 -03:00 Sec No. Room No. Teacher's Name 1 Introductory Biochemistry Introduction to Biotechnology Molecular Biotechnology A A A 9 35 4 Sci Y Sci Y Sci Y 3 3 Microbiology Electricity and Magnetism A A 56 31 NB-15 NB-8 Data Analysis & Report Writing A Data Analysis & Report Writing B Data Analysis & Report Writing C 33 NB-14 Farah Arif Munaza Bajwa Itrat Batool Naqvi 21-Oct-13 1 5 41 Main Lab NB-7 1 1 English-I English-I N K 25 44 SCI Y SCI Z Sadia Ghaznavi Nasreen Pashsa 3 Mathematics A 28 NB-36 Nighat Altaf 5 Molecular Physiology A 16 SCI 9 SCI 6 SCI 8 SCI 12 SCI 12 Tooba Mohtsham Asifa Kayani Saleha Mehboob Ayesha Aftab Gaitee Joshua 22-Oct-13 Basic Concepts of Environmental Sciences 24 5 A Data Handling and Atomic Spectroscopy 5 A 5 5 Electrical Instrumentation Human and Animal Behavior A A 9 9 12 7 Advanced Topics in Molecular BiologyA 7 7 Medical Biotechnology Plant Ecology A A 19 33 3 SCI 6 SCI R SCI 6 SCI 7 SCI 7 SCI 8 SCI8 Dr.Hooria Younas Dr. Amber Shehzadi Asifa Kayani Ayesha Roohi Saleha Mehboob Saima Mubeen Dr. Saleema...
Words: 918 - Pages: 4
...Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. They are called carbohydrates because, at the chemical level, they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates provide fuel for the central nervous system and energy for working muscles. Carbohydrates are classified as simple or complex. Simple carbohydrates contain just one or two sugars, such as fructose (fruits) and galactose (milk products). These single sugars are called monosaccharides. Carbs with two sugars — such as sucrose (table sugar), lactose (dairy) and maltose are called disaccharides. Complex carbohydrates, which are also called polysaccharides have three or more sugars. They are often referred to as starchy foods and include beans, lentils, potatoes, corn, whole-grain breads and cereals. Lipids Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the structure and function of living cells. Examples of lipids include fats, oils, waxes, certain vitamins, hormones and most of the non-protein membrane of cells. Lipids are not soluble in water. They are non-polar and hydrophobic. Lipids contains a functional group including neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. The fatty acids with no carbon-carbon double bonds are called saturated. The ones that have two or more double bonds are called polyunsaturated. Proteins Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules. They are made up of hundreds or...
Words: 371 - Pages: 2
...There are four macromolecules that make up all living things. These macromolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. All of these macromolecules are formed from functional groups. The functional group hydroxyl is found in every macromolecule. All of these macromolecules except for lipids are hydrophilic. All of these macromolecules are broken down into monomers by hydrolysis reactions. Proteins have methyl groups, amino groups, and carboxyl groups. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Proteins functions are determined by how they are folded. Proteins with a primary structure have no function. Proteins with a secondary structure are in the shape of an alpha helix but still have no function. Once a protein achieves tertiary structure that protein has a function. Quaternary structures in proteins are made of many motifs and have the most advanced functions of all the structures, many of them being enzymes due to their three dimensional structure. However, a protein can become unfolded, and once it does it cannot be reversed, this is called denaturation and makes the protein loose its functions. All proteins and polypeptides are links of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. Peptide bonds are formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group and the amino groups in two atoms react which causes dehydration synthesis. Carbohydrates have carbonyl groups, and are organic compounds every time due to the presence of a carbon atom and also have hydrocarbons...
Words: 491 - Pages: 2
...Introduction: Yeast cells are simple, unicellular, eucaryotic organisms belonging to the Fungi kingdom. These cells are particularly important as tools for research because they share structural and compositional similarity with cells of higher organisms. This experiment makes use of these similarities to study individual macromolecular components found within all living cells. Through this experiment we will learn the basic sub-units that make up each of these macromolecules while also learning some of their important structural characteristics. This experiment will consist of two parts. The first of which will divide the yeast cells into three of its major macromolecular components: nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides. These components are large macromolecules that are quite unique in their composition, structure and function. However, they share a common feature as each macromolecule is composed of repeating subunits, characteristic of the macromolecule. The subunits are linked together by a bond between two adjacent subunits, formed by the loss of water (condensation). Thus, macromolecules can be broken down by the addition of water across the bond, in a process known as hydrolysis. This process was used in the experimental procedure to allow analysis of each individual macromolecule in its subunit form. Proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids, nucleic acids are hydrolyzed into sugar, base and phosphate, and polysaccharides are broken down into simple sugars...
Words: 728 - Pages: 3
...Biochemistry Empirical procedure for purifying Enzyme X: 1. To begin the purification process, mix blue green algae with an appropriate quantity of a buffer and triturate through use of a mechanical crushing process. Centrifuge at 4 degrees C for 10 min at 5,000 rpm. Next, determine whether the supernatant and the precipitate has the highest specific activity of the desired enzyme. The specific activity is the ratio of biochemical activity to the weight or volume of total protein present. The portion containing the greatest concentration of the desired enzyme would be kept for further fractionation and testing. Use of substances such as ammonium sulfate or polyethylene glycol that compete for water with the macromolecules could then be employed. This process, known as "salting out" the organic material from water by varying the solvent ratio or through doing another assay measuring the specific activity. Again, the portion containing the lesser amount would be discarded. Affinity chromatography would next be performed to identify the active enzyme based on the principal that enzymes attach to specific substrates and that specific receptors selectively bind the enzyme, impeding its passage in solution. Next, electrophoresis would be performed to help determine the purity of the compound. In electrophoresis, substances are first sorted by size and charge, and then by charge. There will be a separation of bands in the electrophoresis that corresponds to the...
Words: 313 - Pages: 2
