...and biological explanations of major depression. Psychological explanations refer to the cognitive and behavioral theories of major depression such as negative cognitions, learned helplessness, and hopelessness. While biological explanations refer to genetic and neurochemical factors to explain the development and maintenance of major depression (Davey, 2011). Major depression, also commonly referred to as clinical depression, major depressive illness, major affective disorder, or unipolar mood disorder, is a clinical mood disorder including one or more episode of serious depression lasting two or more weeks with no manic episodes. Symptoms include fatigue, impaired...
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...mum is a single mum and also was addicted to alcohol. He grew up being exposed to alcohol ever since he was a child and he thinks that drinking alcohol excessively is normal. However, Ben got to the point that he no longer can live without alcohol and heroin and it started to affect his job and his daily life. Case study - Depression Hannah is a 16 years old girl and she has just managed to finish her high school and is hoping to get into college. She has been experiencing symptoms of depression ever since the age of 13. It has affected her daily life and it had interfered with her studies as she found it hard to go to school and she isolated herself a lot. Hannah didn't like herself and she constantly worried about her future and the world. She had low self-esteem and felt that she was worthless all the time and that feeling did not go away for months. Her family didn't know that it was depression until she was properly diagnosed by a psychiatrist. She now takes medication and it helps a lot with her negative and suicidal thoughts. Hannah has found out later on that her grandfather also suffered from depression. The Social Learning Theory explanation for the cause of addiction could be due to parental addiction and peer pressure. This could be the reason why Ben has become addicted to drugs and alcohol. This can help the therapist to understand and identify any repressed feelings and trauma that the...
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...The biological approach states that psychological disorders are physical illnesses, and that the cause may be one or more of the following: brain injury, infection, neurotransmitters or genetics. Accidental brain damage can lead to psychological disorders. Some examples are, a degeneration or malformation of brain cells can cause memory loss often present in Alzheimer’s disease. Korsakoff’s syndrome occurs when alcohol and drugs damage part of the brain involved with memory. We are familiar with the idea that bacteria or viruses causing physical illnesses, e.g. flu or meningitis, however it seems that infection can also cause mental illnesses. For example, influenza has been linked to schizophrenia. Torrey found that the mothers of schizophrenic people had contacted a particular strain of influenza during pregnancy. The virus may enter the unborn child’s brain where it is dormant until puberty, when other hormones activate it, producing schizophrenic symptoms. Neurotransmitters are thought to be out of balance in the nervous systems id individuals with certain psychological disorders/ mental illnesses. Depression has been associated with decrease availability of serotonin, and has also been associated with higher than normal levels of the cortisol hormone. Images of the brain have measured the action of neurotransmitters and associated illness like depression, (Mann et al. 1996). Important new genetic research has highlighted the possibility that some people may be genetically...
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...Outline and evaluate one psychological explanation and one biological explanation of an eating disorder. [24 marks] Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by recurrent binge-eating followed by self-induced vomiting or another compensatory behaviour (purging). One psychological explanation of bulimia nervosa is the functional model which was created by Polivy et al. in 1994. This model suggests that individuals engage in the binge-eating associated with BN as a way of coping with identity problems, particularly those associated with self-image. By overeating the person can attribute any resulting distress to the overeating rather than to the more serious underlying issues associated with threats to their emotional well-being. This led to the view that bulimic binge behaviour was purposeful for individuals dealing with life stressors. The functional model assumes that individuals with BN engage in binge-eating as a way of avoiding identity issues. Wheeler et al. (2001) proposed that negative self-image and a desire to escape from difficult life issues predicted the onset of bulimic behaviour, the consequence of which was a diffuse-avoidant identity style. Individuals in this state feel externally controlled, use emotion-focused rather than problem-focused coping strategies, and avoid the exploration of identity issues. Consequently they maintain a negative self-image and feel socially isolated. Polivy et al. provided evidence for the claim that BN is a functional...
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...Outline and evaluate biological explanations of depression. 8 + 16 marks One biological explanation of depression is genes. This suggests that depression is inherited. Research shows that individuals with a depressed relative (parent/sibling) are 1.5. to 3 times more likely to develop depression than those without a depressed relative. Twin studies show a concordance rate of 46% for MZ (identical) compared with 20% for DZ (non-identical) twins. This suggests that genes have a role in whether people develop depression or not. However, concordance rates are never 100% for identical twins so this suggests that genes can’t be a full explanation because MZ twins share 100% of their genes and so if genes were the only cause of depression there would be a 100% concordance. This means that there must be other factors involved for example environmental ones such as upbringing and interaction with parents and family members. Higher concordance rates for MZ twins could be explained by the fact that being identical, they are more likely to share a more similar life experience than non-identical twins. It makes sense to take a mixed approach; the diathesis-stress model shows how there can be a genetic predisposition, which is triggered by environmental cues such as life experience. Research has shown that women who were genetically predisposed to depression (had an identical twin suffering with depression) were more likely to develop depressive symptoms when faced with negative life experiences...
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...Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality (12 marks) One definition of abnormality is “deviation from social norms” and under this definition a person’s thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the unwritten rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. Behaviour may be incomprehensible to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable. For example, someone would be classified as being abnormal if they laughed at a funeral, as this is socially unacceptable. A weakness of this definition is that it lacks cultural relativity as social behaviour varies when different cultures are compared. For e.g. it’s common in south Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK. As well as this voice pitch and volume, touching, directions of gaze and acceptable subjects for discussion have all been found to vary between cultures. This means what is considered deviant or abnormal varies considerably across cultures, thus weakening this definition. Another limitation of deviation from social norms is that it lacks time validity. This is because social norms change over time; behaviour that was once seen as abnormal may be acceptable and vice versa. For example, drink driving was once considered acceptable but is now seen as socially unacceptable whereas homosexuality has changed the other way. Until 1980 homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder but is considered acceptable today. This is a weakness...
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...Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality (12 marks) One definition of abnormality is “deviation from social norms” and under this definition a person’s thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the unwritten rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. Behaviour may be incomprehensible to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable. For example, someone would be classified as being abnormal if they laughed at a funeral, as this is socially unacceptable. A weakness of this definition is that it lacks cultural relativity as social behaviour varies when different cultures are compared. For e.g. it’s common in south Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK. As well as this voice pitch and volume, touching, directions of gaze and acceptable subjects for discussion have all been found to vary between cultures. This means what is considered deviant or abnormal varies considerably across cultures, thus weakening this definition. Another limitation of deviation from social norms is that it lacks time validity. This is because social norms change over time; behaviour that was once seen as abnormal may be acceptable and vice versa. For example, drink driving was once considered acceptable but is now seen as socially unacceptable whereas homosexuality has changed the other way. Until 1980 homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder but is considered acceptable today. This is a weakness because...
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...afflictions. Mood disorders include those who suffer the symptoms of depression and mania. The depressive disorder unipolar depression, are those who only experience the lows of depression, while bipolar disorder is marked by both the low of depression and the frenzied high of mania. Substance use disorders are marked by recurrent use of substances, such as alcohol or drugs, that results in maladaptive behaviors (Comer, 2014). To explain the development if both mood and substance disorders there are biological, psychological, and sociocultural models. Treatment for these maladaptive behaviors also use biological, psychological, and sociocultural methods. Finally, there are several gender and cultural differences in the development, frequency, and treatment in these disorders. Mood disorders Depressive disorder has symptoms such as sadness, low energy, guilt, and low self-worth (Comer, 2014). When these symptoms occur without periods of mania, it is called unipolar depression. Overall, about 19 percent of the adult population experiences an episode of unipolar depression in their lifetime. Severe cases interfere with the daily activities of life and can include physical symptoms such as physical pain and muscle fatigue. Severe moodiness and suicidal thoughts may also accompany severe cases. To explain the causes of depressive disorder professionals turn to biological, psychological, and sociocultural theories. Biological causes include genetic and biochemical theories. According to...
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...THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Approaches to psychopathology are based on different views of the CAUSE of abnormality. The models have different views about how abnormality comes about in the first place Assumptions of the biological model • Abnormality is caused by physical factors – as all behaviour is associated with changes in brain function, abnormal behaviour will be caused by changes in either the structure or function of the brain. - For example in terms of the structure of the brain (neuroanatomy) a damaged hypothalamus has been linked to anorexia - In terms of the function of the brain, neurotransmitters and hormones have been linked to psychopathology, e.g. low levels of serotonin have been lined to depression. • Abnormality is inherited – the genetic view is that there are abnormal genes that are inherited, i.e. passed down from parents to children, even though they may not be shown in every generation. Family, twin and adoption studies are used to establish concordance rates (this shows the extent to which members of the same family share a particular characteristic) to test for genetic predispositions as an explanation of abnormality. - For example Holland et al (1988) found a 56% concordance rate for identical twins (MZ) and only a 5% concordance rate for non-identical twins (DZ) in anorexia nervosa which supports the idea of a genetic basis for abnormality. Evaluation of the biological model Strengths ...
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...The cognitive explanation of depression is a psychological explanation proposed by Beck. He believed that people who are depressed make fundamental errors in logic. Beck (1991) proposed that depression is rooted in three maladaptive assumptions: negative thoughts of self, of circumstances, and of the future which is known as the cognitive triad. He suggested that depressive people draw illogical conclusions which lead to a distorted reality. An example of these cognitive distortions is Maximisation, the tendency to exaggerate the significance of an event. There is also Minimisation, the tendency to underplay a positive event. Beck also does not rule out a genetic component as he also suggests that negative cognitions may be as a result of inheriting different characteristics and that traumatic events and negative treatment in childhood can create negative schemas. A strength of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it has practical applications for the treatment of depression. They have stimulated huge amounts of research that has contributed to our understanding of the disorder and how to treat it. They have given rise to one of the most effective treatment for depression – CBT. This theory therefore contributes to our understanding and treatment of depression. A further strength comes from the study conducted by Lewinsohn (1981). He measured self-esteem and depression related cognitions in adults for a year. He found that depression related cognitions arose alongside...
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...Outline and evaluate the Biological Approach to Depression According to the biological approach all psychological illnesses have a physical cause; it focus is on the treatment not the cure this can support the reason why relapse rates are high for individuals with depression. The biological approach to abnormality states that abnormality is caused by a range of different physical factors: Genetics and chemical imbalances in the brain. It is suggested that people possess certain genetic characteristics that make them more prone to developing abnormal behaviour such as depression. It is also thought that chemical imbalances in the brain produce abnormal behaviour, for example a lack of serotonin causes depression. This approach is better at explaining endogenous depression. Family, twin and adoption studies are used to research into depression. Supporting evidence for the biological approach is that depression is universal, as they are increasing and found cross culturally. Weismann (1987) stated that family evidence suggests that a person is 10 times more likely to suffer from depression, if a parent or sibling has a similar disorder. This could be because living with a person who is depressed could be depressing. However, according to a behavioural explanation this behaviour could have being modelled as the female could identify with the eating disorder and use them as a role model. Also family studies are conducted using retrospective data (looking back) and rely on correct...
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...Outline and evaluate one psychological explanation and one biological explanation of one eating disorder. (8 marks + 16 marks) Anorexia is an eating disorder of abnormal weight loss dropping below 85% of what was previously considered normal. This is characterised by low blood pressure, amenorrhoea and depression, as well as other bodily changes. Anorexia is caused by strict controls on weight and unusual eating habits which can be explained through both psychological and biological explanations. The psychological explanation of anorexia is explained through cultural ideas in the media which portrays thin models on TV and magazines. This is a significant contributory factor in body image concerns and the drive for thinness among Western adolescent girls. Research by Jones and Buckingham found that people with low self-esteem are more likely to compare themselves to idealised imagines portrayed in the media. There is a wealth of evidence to support the view that the mass media portrays slender as a beauty ideal which people strive to follow. For instance, Goresz et al (2001) reviewed 25 studies and showed that this ideal causes bodily dissatisfaction and contributes to the development of eating disorders, particularly affecting girls aged 19 and below. Furthermore, there also comes support from a natural observation carried out by Becker et al (2002) in a study of Fijian adolescents. It was found that after the introduction of television to an island, these girls stated...
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...STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES OF BIOLOGICAL APPROACH STRENGTHS 1. We need to know the basis of what makes us tick. If we don’t then we cannot really claim to know anything about behaviour at all. Some would claim that all behaviour should be explained on a physiological level because all that we are is contained in our neural and hormonal reactions. WEAKNESSES 1. It’s reductionist, which leads to the following criticisms: (a) If someone comes to you with depression is it any use to them to tell them that their serotonin receptors are not functioning properly? (b) Mind/body problem 1: psychology has great influence on physiology (stress and illness) (c) Mind/body problem 2: sensation is not necessarily the same as perception (d) Consciousness: what is it, where is it and is it any use finding it? (e) What about free will? Biological approach advocates determinism 2. Evolutionary approach has a number of problems: (a) Altruism: difficult to explain. Even sociobiologists come up with some very convoluted explanations. (b) Our developing cortex means that we rely less on instincts and more on “higher” processes. (c) Our behaviour is very much socially and culturally determined. 3. Genes: Difficult to separate genes and environmental influences on behaviour. 2. If we know the physiological basis of some aspects of behaviour (e.g. depression) then we can treat the problem using drugs, which could solve the problem entirely if it’s simply a straightforward chemical imbalance. Plus, some aspects...
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...LESSON FIVE & SIX – ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT EATING DISORDERS ------------------------------------------------- Specification link: You will be able to outline and evaluate: ------------------------------------------------- Biological, including neural and evolutionary, explanations of anorexia nervosa ------------------------------------------------- Psychology explanations of anorexia nervosa Outline and description of theories | Research evidence and commentary | IntroductionThe DSM-IV Rev identifies three categories of eating disorder: * Anorexia nervosa 1. AN -restricting type – refusal to eat 2. AN- binge eating/purging type – episodes of binge eating followed by removal of food from the body by vomiting, laxatives, or enemas.Both of these are associated with significant weight loss and the other symptoms of AN. * Bulimia nervosa – episodes of binging followed by removal of food from the body by vomiting, laxatives, or enemas (no significant weight loss). * Eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS)The four major symptoms of anorexia nervosa are: * The body weight is 85% or less of normal weight for age and height * Distorted perception of body weight/shape, and/or denial that the weight loss is severe * Intense fear of becoming fat * Loss of three consecutive menstrual cycles in women (amenorrhoea)Anorexia nervosa (AN) and Bulimia nervosa (BN) have much in common, particularly a dissatisfaction with body weight and/or shape....
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...healthy behavior. Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that includes a broad range of factors from depression and obsession-compulsion to bipolar and schizophrenic. Understanding abnormal behavior begins with understanding what is normal. Each individual can have different normal and abnormal behavior but society has an overall standard for abnormal behavior. Abnormal psychology is represented by theoretical models including the psychosocial, biological/medical, and sociocultural theory. The overall study of abnormal psychology has evolved from a curious mind to a scientific discipline. Origins of Abnormal Psychology “Abnormal psychology has experienced tremendous change, progress, and controversy over the roughly 100 years it has existed as a field of study” (Hansell & Damour, 2008, p. 3). The earliest known studying of abnormal psychology included mental illness with the amistic/spiritual approach. With this view the practice of boring holes in the skull was used to release evil spirits causing the behavior. Another past treatment for abnormal behavior was Dr. Weir Mitchell’s rest cure that involved two months of bed rest, seclusion, a diet of red meat and milk, and massage. Before Dr. Mitchell’s time, around 460 B.C., a Greek physician named Hippocrates had a theory that began the scientific evolution of abnormal psychology with a biological explanation. His idea included...
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