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Capitulo Cinco

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CAPÍTULO V: ¿QUIÉN PERDIÓ A RUSIA?
Dos fueron las grandes transiciones económicas de todos los tiempos: * La primera cuando Rusia aplicó el comunismo * La segunda tras la caída del Muro de Berlín
Rusia experimentó un gran crecimiento, después de 1998, basado en la suba del precio del petróleo y de los beneficios de la devaluación (a la que tanto se opuso el FMI). Pero como dichos precios han caído y las ventajas de la devaluación ya han sido cosechadas, el crecimiento se ha desacelerado.
Pero para llevar a cabo una exitosa transición de la economía de estado a la economía de mercado, es necesario comprender que la Revolución de 1917 apuntó también a un cambio social y político. De hecho cuando Rusia abrió sus puertas al mercado global, en las inmediatas y primeras elecciones democráticas, tras el hecho se observó un creciente rechazo a los extremistas de la reforma de mercado y subieron al poder partidos socialdemócratas.

* Desafíos y oportunidades de la transición
En 1989, había en Rusia bancos que canalizaban el ahorro pero no decían quién obtenía los créditos; había empresas que producían, pero les decían qué producir y se les asignaban insumos y materias primas para hacerlo.
Pero los gestores de las empresas se las ingeniaban para cumplir con sus cuotas de producción al tiempo que conseguían gratificaciones para ellos, lógicamente, por encima de sus salarios oficiales. Esto dio lugar a la elusión de la ley, o directamente, su violación, y todo esto se convirtió en una forma de vida. Se dio así lugar a la ruptura del imperio de la ley y el aumento de las prácticas corruptas.
En el sistema soviético había precios, pero eran establecidos por el Estado. Los bienes de primera necesidad eran mantenidos artificialmente bajos para que el sector más pobre de la sociedad escapara de la miseria.
Hace algunos años se pensaba que la economía de mercado poseía sólo tres ingredientes esenciales: precios, propiedad privada y beneficios. Pero dejaban de considerar la relevancia de las instituciones: aquellos entes legales y reguladores que ordenan los mercados.
En el caso ruso, gradualmente se fue accediendo a una economía de mercado, pero no sin antes haber fundado los entes reguladores que mencionáramos en el párrafo ut supra.
De cualquier manera, Rusia accedió a una economía de mercado; sin embargo, el nivel de vida cayó estrepitosamente.

* La historia de la <<reforma>>
Los primeros cambios comenzaron a vislumbrase alrededor de 1992. El grueso de los precios fue liberalizado aunque se siguieron controlando aquellos concernientes a los recursos naturales.
La liberalización, la estabilización y la privatización a toda prisa fueron las políticas pilares del FMI. Pero en el caso ruso, estas tres políticas se tradujeron en una caída del 60% en la producción entre 1990 y 1999. Los inversores, lógicamente, no se iban a arriesgar a invertir en un país poco prometedor, y a esto se le sumó la fuga de capitales.

* La crisis de 1998
Las importaciones inundaron a Rusia y los productores locales a duras penas podían competir. La inversión se había interrumpido y Rusia ya no estaba produciendo bienes de consumo. A todo esto se le sumaba el paro "disfrazado": los trabajadores simulaban trabajar, y los empresarios simulaban pagar. Los salarios se derrumbaron, y en forma de pago muchos trabajadores recibían bienes de primera necesidad en vez de rublos.
Se provocó la sobrevaluación del rublo, lo que benefició a los empresarios: necesitaban menos rublos para comprar sus Mercedes o carteras Channel.
Fue así como el FMI recomendó al Estado Ruso endeudarse en dólares, ya que el rublo era más alto al cambio que la divisa norteamericana. El Fondo suponía que el Estado ahorraría mucho y esto paliaría en cierta manera la crisis. Lo que los burócratas del Fondo no consideraron es que una moneda no está sujeta a un exclusivo tipo de cambio, y era factible que el rublo llegase a desplomarse. Llegado este momento, Rusia sería presa de la debacle.
Como es de esperar, el FMI eligió no contemplar ese riesgo.

* Rescate
La crisis había estallado, y el paquete de ayuda, conformado de unos 22.600 millones de U$S, estaba a cargo del FMI (11.200 millones), el BM (6.000 millones) y el resto a cargo del gobierno de Japón.
Sin embargo, ¿Por qué a Rusia se le otorgaban 22.600 millones de U$S a pesar de ser un Estado sumamente corrupto, y a Kenya le suspendían la ayuda por sus altos índices de corrupción?
Tiempo después, el Estado Ruso recibió 300 millones más para mantener el tipo de cambio del rublo con respecto al dólar, lo que constituyó una pésima política económica. Si el rublo sobrevaluado dañaba la economía ¿para qué mantenerlo? Muchos creyeron que un gran fracaso se aproximaba, y no se confundieron.

* Fracaso
Luego del préstamo, el 17 de agosto de 1998, Rusia anunció la suspensión de pagos unilateral, la devaluación del rublo y un mayor control al movimiento de capitales, entre otras cosas. El rublo, para enero de 1999 había caído en términos reales un 45% desde su nivel en los idus de agosto de 1998.
Con la crisis rusa, muchos países latinoamericanos estuvieron al borde del colapso; incluso el Banco de Reserva Federal de New York, activó un rescate privado para una importante firma rusa, temiendo que ésta se declarase en banca rota y se precipitara una crisis financiera mundial.
El tipo de cambio se sostuvo apenas tres semanas y los oligarcas desangraron de dinero al país en apenas horas, o pocos días. Los funcionarios del FMI estaban fuera de sí: creían que su plan funcionaría. Los 300 millones prestados, a los pocos días, se encontraban en cuentas bancarias de Suiza o Chipre... El Gobierno Ruso se los había proporcionado a los oligarcas para que, precisamente, los sacaran del país.
En cierto sentido, la devaluación ayudó a las importaciones de ciertos sectores rusos, y finalmente los bienes producidos en dicho país obtuvieron una saludable cuota en el mercado local.

* Las transacciones fallidas
En el caso ruso, se esperaba que los beneficios de la transición del comunismo al capitalismo fueran mayores a largo que a corto plazo. Sin embargo, según datos del Banco Mundial, el PBI de Rusia en el año 2000 era dos tercios menor al del año 1989. Lo mismo sucedió con Ucrania y Moldavia, y otros tantos países pertenecientes a la ex URSS.
Algo similar ocurrió con la calidad y los niveles de vida, que influyeron en la esperanza de vida, disminuyendo ésta unos tres años aproximadamente.
Un salvable y positivo aspecto fue la reducción de gastos en materia militar y armamentística, aunque no se tradujo en un incremento del bienestar económico social.

* Más pobreza y desigualdad
Para caer en la cuenta del incremento de la pobreza en Rusia, sólo necesitamos de un índice macroeconómico considerado en distintos años: el índice de la pobreza. Las personas pobres –es decir, aquellas que viven con menos de 2 U$S diarios–, en 1989 constituían apenas el 2% de la población. A finales de 1998, el índice había trepado hasta el 23,8%.
A lo anterior se le sumaba que más del 40% del país vivía con menos de 4 U$S diarios, según informes del Banco Mundial. Lo peor aún era que más de un 50% de los niños del país pertenecían a familias pobres.
Como se aprecia, el antiguo régimen suprimía de alguna manera las diferencias salariales, y aunque no garantizaba una vida sencilla, evitó la pobreza extrema.
Rusia había logrado una enorme caída de la actividad y una enorme alza en la desigualdad.

* De cómo las políticas equivocadas malograron la transición
Si bien son muchos los que dirán que sin las políticas del FMI nuestro mundo sería aún peor, hemos visto cómo las recomendaciones de la institución sólo empeoran la situación macroeconómica de los países, incrementan los índices de pobreza y desigualdad social, generan monopolios, propician cierres y liquidaciones de empresas, y tantas otras graves enfermedades económicas.

* Inflación
Vimos, sí, cómo la rápida liberalización de los mercados provocó un estallido inflacionario. Y, si bien el FMI siempre presionó para que se rebajase la inflación, hay algunas buenas razones para creer que un celo excesivo en la lucha contra la inflación, puede traer aparejado un ahogo del crecimiento económico real.
En el caso ruso, en primer lugar, los altos tipos de interés ahuyentaron la inversión. Al mismo tiempo, muchas empresas no pudieron expandirse y liquidaron sus activos. Del mismo modo, los altos tipos de interés llevaron a una sobrevaluación de los tipos de cambio que abarató las importaciones pero dificultó las exportaciones.
Con estas rigurosas políticas monetarias, se benefició al subempleo y al trueque. Así, un sistema, o un conjunto de ineficiencias, fue reemplazado por otro peor.

* Privatización
¿Por qué "crear" riquezas cuando era mucho más fácil robarlas? Esto sucedió con las privatizaciones en Rusia, en las que el FMI tanto insistió. Con las masivas privatizaciones, que no interesaba de qué manera se concretaran, quienes accedían al control de una empresa tenían un incentivo para robar activos a los accionistas minoritarios. A todos los niveles había incentivos para la liquidación de activos.
Básicamente, la privatización consistió en pasar las entonces empresas públicas a manos de sus antiguos gestores.
Otro ejemplo de privatización destructiva en poco tiempo aconteció en 1995. El gobierno ruso carecía de fondos y, en vez de recurrir al Banco Central en busca de ellos, recurrió a los bancos privados. Como garantía de la devolución del préstamo, el gobierno ofreció acciones de las empresas estatales. Y sucedió lo lógico y lo esperado: el gobierno cesó con el pago de los créditos y los bancos tomaron a las empresas estatales. En definitiva, algunos empresarios se enriquecieron en segundos (controlando más del 50% de la riqueza del país), y a la vez, miles de personas se empobrecieron aún más.
Todo lo relatado fue propiciado por Yelstin, y obviamente los empresarios y poderosos deseaban mantenerlo en el poder. Y así fue como emplearon nuevas técnicas en las elecciones y le "enseñaron a utilizar un trato cordial en los medios de comunicación" (como ellos la dominaban).

* El contexto social
En Rusia uno no se enriquecía trabajando duro o invirtiendo; se enriquecía robando, privatizando o mediante otras prácticas mafiosas o corruptas. Y fue esto lo que produjo un descreimiento de la sociedad en su gobierno. Así, de a poco, se erosionó el capital social, y menos empresas desearon invertir. El problema ruso era serio.

* Terapia de choque
¿Qué era lo ideal? ¿Apresurar la transición de la economía de estado a la de mercado o que la misma se llevase a cabo de forma gradual? No sabemos qué hubiese sucedido de haberse convertido gradualmente a la economía del país, pero sí sabemos que la apresurada transformación que se aplicó, llevó a un desmedido caos en Rusia.

* El enfoque bolchevique en la reforma de los mercados
La historia nos enseñó que ninguna Revolución radical condujo a buen término. En contraste a las Revoluciones Francesa y Rusa, la revolución norteamericana no fue en sí una revolución social sino un cambio revolucionario en las estructuras políticas del país.
La revolución económica radical en Rusia condujo a la eclosión del país: se privatizaron rápidamente empresas y medios de comunicación, generando monopolios, más corrupción y más pobreza.

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