Running Head: CHANGING ROLES

The Changing Roles of the Japanese Women in Business

Abstract

Since the 1950’s the Japanese women have sought to change the traditional role of an office lady who becomes a housewife and a mother after marriage. This is apparent in their attitudes toward marriage and the family system. A new generation of educated women who are seeking a career as a working woman. After World War II women have developed a more individualistic approach to life. Women have waited until they are much older to marry, living at home longer, vacationing to Hawaii, and contributing to the economy with their disposable income. There has been a decline in arranged marriages, many women have taken jobs to find a husband on their own, and even after marriage and children they continue to work, which was inconceivable before the 1950’s. A popular view that is still eminent in the Japanese society is that working married women pose a threat to the family. With the new reforms and different attitudes towards traditional family life, gender inequality is still prevalent. This notion is expressed in a popular expression, “Good wife, wise mother” (Brannen & Wilen, 1993).

The Changing Role of the Japanese Women in Business

Like most cultures in our world, Japanese women were the patriarchal framework for many centuries. Compared to Western standards, the women were unusually dedicated to their families. This can be attributed to the religious beliefs of Confucianism and the Samurai based feudalism. Despite these beliefs, the role of women has changed dramatically since the beginning of World War II (Iwao, 1993).

The age of modernization began in 1860 after the fall of feudalism. Education opportunities were available for women but were centered on educating on homemaking and jobs outside the home brought on discrimination and oppression. This was the first step to the “Quiet revolution,” to allow change to be sustained in a culture based on harmonious interpersonal relationships. Once married, the woman had the lowest status of the entire household. She had to serve her mother-in-law and husband with no questions. The first one up in the morning and the last to go to bed at night, she served her family tirelessly (Iwao, 1993).

The Japanese women became the key to the country’s success during the countries tumultuous time. The government attempted to increase the birth rate so that Japan could compete with the countries surrounding them. The women were urged to live according to the saying, “Umeyo fuyaseyo,” produce more babies and increase the population. In the commercial sector, the women were attributed to the country’s economic success. Japan needed a way to finance its modernization effort; they did so by textile export. They employed thousands of women to work in the textile factories. By 1900 250,000 women worked in this industry, and they accounted for 63% of the labor force. The Japanese women were forced by economic factors to work in the factories. The women were paid low wages and lived in crowded accommodations (Iwao, 1993).

During World War II nearly 7 million men served in the Japanese Army, they represented nearly 30% of male working population. With this large amount of men fighting, women began to work in mines, mills, and factories. The women became single women, in a sense; they were responsible for supporting an entire family while their husbands were gone (Bingham, Gross 1987).

By the end of World War II the society of Japan had changed. Cities were in rumbles from bombings, many cities were depleted, and many were left homeless. “The war brought to Japan both economic bankruptcy and the bankruptcy of our social traditions. In the economic and social anarchy that followed, everyone had to pick a living for himself. This desperate situation helped to foster a basic democratic tendency, and worked as the principal factor for the shattering of our feudalistic family system” (Rosenberger, 2001).

The young women that did work, typically worked in offices, and were known as “Office ladies.” There job was senseless; they were to dress well and smell good, in order to brighten up the men’s workday. The only work was minor, making tea for the men, photocopying and cleaning the office. Most of these companies required the women to resign after marriage, and women who did not marry by their middle twenties were considered “Christmas cakes,” she was no good after the 25th. With this mindset, it is not hard to understand why one would be conflicted on hiring a female over a male. The popular opinion was for a woman to quit after being married or having a child. The company would constantly have to train and replace the position every time a woman was married or had a child, it was not expected for them to return to work after these events. (Iwao, 1993).

Inside the home is where the Japanese women have the most control. She is expected to have children and raise them essentially alone; they make the decisions about their education and typically spoil their boys. She has control of the finances, the husband brings home the check and she gives him his spending money and makes the decisions where the finances are spent (Iwao, 1993).

The end of World War II brought social, economic, and political changes in Japan. The most influential change in the “Quiet revolution,” was the 1947 Constitution, it gave women the right to vote, run for parliament, education, own property, and marriage must be mutual consent. The laws took a few years to settle in but it served as the starting point for the liberation of the Japanese women. With these new changes, women began to further their education and had more job opportunities; these changes began to transform their lives and their culture. As with any change there were people who opposed these changes not only in the workplace but in the family life as well. The Japanese women continued to make advances regardless of the challenges they faced (Iwao, 1993).

In the twentieth century, women’s education opportunities continued to increase. This is an area where women exceed the number of men who enroll in higher education. In Japan 48.9 percent of the population advances to higher education, more so than in the United States. Women, who at first, were guided more towards an education that would help them to become better homemakers, are now majoring in engineering and social science. The universities are overwhelmingly governed by the Japanese men, there are very few professors that are women, but the majority of these universities are slowing becoming coeducational. These setting making it intimidating for many women to attend universities, and Japan has been slow to adopt the use of internet in home, making it almost impossible to earn a degree online (Iwao, 1993).

In 1990 nearly 50% of all Japanese women over fifteen years old participated in the work force. At that time there were two major changes in the females in the workplace. First, they moved away from home based employment. This created problems with child care, elderly care, and housekeeping. The second major change was married women in the workplace. In 1950 most women that worked were young and single; nearly 62% of the female workforce had never been married. By 1987 nearly 66% of the female workforce was married, and only 23% had never been married, this is a dramatic change from the 50’s when more than half the women working were not married. The women that chose to work after marriage did so in professional and government jobs. Other women worked in family businesses or began their own business. It was more common for the women to leave the workforce after childbirth and return after the youngest child was in school. Their earnings were on average 60% of that of their husbands, with this average it was not advantageous for them to work full time, if doing so left no one to take care of the children and house, so they usually took lower paying, part time jobs to give them time to manage the household and caring for the children. Those women that did choose to go back to work after childbirth often found only a part-time position available, which was technically full time work but part-time pay. (Brannen & Wilen, 1993).

One reason Japanese women are waiting until they are older or not getting married at all, is that traditionally the wife of the oldest son is expected to care for his parents. As you can imagine, this idea is not enticing to the new generation of Japanese woman. Many choose to stay at home and live with their parents (Brannen & Wilen, 1993).

The birthrate in Japan has declined since 1960. If this rate continues, it estimated that the Japanese population will decrease more than 40 percent in half a century. The Japanese women are forced with many difficult decisions with the declining population and the longer life expectancy of the aging generation. Due to economic pressures, many families have dual incomes. The women are now needed in the workforce to keep their economy running effectively, raise their children, care for the elderly, and run the household. At the same time the divorce rate continues to rise and many married couples are deciding not to have children or only have one. The married Japanese men spend very little time doing housework, caring for their children or helping with the elderly. In households where both partners work, the men spend on average less than half an hour a day on the everyday chores that the women are still expected to achieve on a daily basis (Rosenberger, 2001).

Another important aspect of the Japanese women in business is how they are perceived. Although the Japanese women have advancements in the business world since the 1950’s, many of the Japanese men do not relate easily to a woman that is in an authoritative role, so it is imperative that a woman be more knowledgeable, harder working and dress to earn the respect of the Japanese men in the workplace. To avoid being treated as an “office lady,” women wear their hair shorter, or tie it back, and wear suits made by Gucci, Chanel and Prada. The women are rarely allowed to wear jewelry, short skirts, or high heels (Brannen & Wilen, 1993).

An important piece of legislation that has made a significant difference in the business sector is The Equal Employment Opportunity Law that was passed in 1986. This law states that men and women should be treated equally in the workplace, from recruiting new employees to hiring and to retirement (Bingham, Gross 1987). The average annual income for the Japanese women is nearly 50% of a Japanese man. This is a powerful statistic that speaks volume on the looming mentality that still exists in the culture today. Although the women’s movement has given more legal rights to the women, there is still discrimination towards women in the workplace. Many of the views stated in this paper are still common today, although there have been some changes and differing views since the 1980s. The common concept of women quitting her job after marriage or childbirth is slowly eroding and many women are developing a career path. The emerging generation in Japan is changing their attitudes and views about proper roles of husbands and wives. Over half of Japanese women are working, but most hold positions that are lower than those men hold (Bingham, Gross 1987).

The changes that the Japanese women are undertaking are happening at a time when Japan is facing economic and socials challenges. Women are waiting to get married, or not at all, they are taking jobs other than homemaking, working after marriage and children while caring for the home and the divorce rate is increasing. Even with these momentous advances there is still a wage disparity between men and women. Women are still considered a cheap source of labor, only earning one half or less of their male counterparts, and the primary nurturer of their families. Japanese women are among the world’s best educated but not treated as so. With the recent economic struggles and legislations, Japan’s economy is beginning to become more favorable and accepting of women who choose to have a career.

References

Bingham, M. J., & S. H. Gross (1987). Women in Japan: From Ancient Times to the Present. St. Louis, MN: Glenhurst Publications Inc.
Brannen,Chrstalyn & Wilen, Tracey (1993). Doing Business with Japanese Men: A Woman’s Handbook. Berkeley, CA: Stonebridge Press.

Iwao, S. (1993). The Japanese Women: Traditional Image and Changing Reality. New York, NY: The Free Press

Rosenberger, N. (2001). Gambling With Virtue. Honolulu, Hawai'i: U of Hawai'i Press.
(2006). Statistical handbook of Japan: Chapter 2 population. Retrieved July 11, 2011, from Statistics Bureau Web site: http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c02cont.htm#cha2_4