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Chapter 0 Notes * Windows 8: A multitasking operating system for personal computers, workstations, servers, and mobile devices. This operating system incorporates many of the latest developments in operating system technology. In addition, Windows is one of the first important commercial operating systems to rely heavily on object-oriented design principles. This book covers the technology used in the most recent versions of Windows, known as Windows 8. * Android: Android tailored for embedded devices, especially mobile phones.
Focusing on the unique requirements of the embedded environment, the book provides details of Android internals. * UNIX: A multiuser operating system, originally intended for minicomputers, but implemented on a wide range of machines from powerful microcomputers to supercomputers. Several flavors of UNIX are included as examples. FreeBSD is a widely used system that incorporates many state-of-the-art features. Solaris is a widely used commercial version of UNIX. * Linux: An open-source version of UNIX that is now widely used.

Web Sites for This Book

Three Web sites provide additional resources for students and instructors. There is a
Companion Web site for this book at http://williamstallings.com/OperatingSystems/.

Chapter 1 Notes

An operating system (OS) exploits the hardware resources of one or more processors to provide a set of services to system users. The OS also manages secondary memory and I/O (input/output) devices on behalf of its users.

1.1 BASIC ELEMENTS
1.1 Basic Elements

At a top level, a computer consists of processor, memory, and I/O components, with one or more modules of each type. These components are interconnected in some fashion to achieve the main function of the computer, which is to execute programs.
Thus, there are four main structural elements:

* Processor: Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions. When there is only one processor, it is often referred to as the central processing unit (CPU). * Main memory: Stores data and programs. This memory is typically volatile; that is, when the computer is shut down, the contents of the memory are lost.
In contrast, the contents of disk memory are retained even when the computer system is shut down. Main memory is also referred to as real memory or primary memory. * I/O modules: Move data between the computer and its external environment.
The external environment consists of a variety of devices, including secondary memory devices (e.g., disks), communications equipment, and terminals. * System bus: Provides for communication among processors, main memory, and I/O modules.

One of the processor’s functions is to exchange data with memory. For this purpose, it typically makes use of two internal (to the processor) registers: a memory address register (MAR), which specifies the address in memory for the next read or write; and a memory buffer register (MBR), which contains the data to be written into memory or which receives the data read from memory. Similarly, an I/O address register (I/OAR) specifies a particular I/O device. An I/O buffer register (I/OBR) is used for the exchange of data between an I/O module and the processor. A memory module consists of a set of locations, defined by sequentially numbered addresses. Each location contains a bit pattern that can be interpreted as either an instruction or data. An I/O module transfers data from external devices to processor and memory, and vice versa. It contains internal buffers for temporarily holding data until they can be sent on.

1.2 EVOLUTION OF THE MICROPROCESSOR

1.2 Evolution of the Microprocessor

The hardware revolution that brought about desktop and handheld computing was the invention of the microprocessor, which contained a processor on a single chip. Though originally much slower than multichip processors, microprocessors have continually evolved to the point that they are now much faster for most computations due to the physics involved in moving information around in sub-nanosecond timeframes.

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