Practical – Do leading questions have an effect on memory?
Aim:
To find out whether leading questions result in the inaccuracy of memory.

Hypothesis: My hypothesis is that participants who are asked a leading question will have a higher estimate of speed after watching the video clip. I have suggested this due to the Loftus and Palmer Study (1974), in which Loftus and Palmer conclude that leading questions alter a person’s recollection of memory, often activating the wrong schemas and in most cases distort the recalled information by reconstructing the memory with the help of particular cues. The hypothesis created is one-tailed/ directional.

Null Hypothesis:
My null hypothesis is that participants who are asked a leading question will have a similar estimate of speed as participants who are asked a non-leading question.

Apparatus: 1. A video clip of two cars being raced - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfV87TgYH78 2. Paper and pen – For students to write their estimate of speed.

Independent Variable:
The independent variable is the leading/ non-leading question asked to participants.

Dependent Variable:
The dependent variable is the estimation of the speed (mph) of the car in the video clip shown to participants.

The two variables above will determine the final results acquired from the experiment I will be conducting with my group.

Controlled Variable:
I will ensure that the two groups contain equal number of participants. For e.g. 9 students in group 1 (leading) and 9 students in group 2 (non-leading). Also I will make sure that participants in both groups are shown the video clip of car twice only.

Design: Independent Groups Design

Advantage of this design: * Easy to see variations between set of results. * Avoids order effects.

Disadvantage of this design: * Individual differences e.g. age, gender, disability.

Type of experiment:
The type of experiment I will be carrying out is a laboratory experiment; an experiment like this will be conducted in a specific environment where variables will be fully controlled. Participants will be aware that they are taking part in the experiment, however will not be aware of the true aims, in order to restrict participants from carrying out what the hypothesis proposes.
Disadvantages of this type of experiment: * Having control over extraneous variables makes the experiment artificial, this may mean that the experiment cannot be applied to real life situations. * Participants may act differently to how they may normally act as they will be aware that they are a part of a psychology experiment (demand characteristics).

Disadvantages of this type of experiment: * Having control over extraneous variables makes the experiment artificial, this may mean that the experiment cannot be applied to real life situations. * Participants may act differently to how they may normally act as they will be aware that they are a part of a psychology experiment (demand characteristics).

Advantages of this type of experiment:
The type of experiment chosen has many advantages. One benefit is that it ensures that extraneous variables are controlled. Additionally it makes sure that the independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable leaving us with results we can reply on to make conclusions from. I can also regulate very precisely of what takes place.

Disadvantages of this type of experiment:
However this type of experiment does also pose many difficulties. A disadvantage is that having a control over extraneous variables makes the experiment highly artificial specifying that the experiment can be hard to apply to real life situations. Furthermore participants may change their behaviour and attitudes and act differently to how they normally act as they will be alert that they are a part of a psychology experiment (investigator effects).

Sampling Method:
The sampling method which I have chosen is opportunity sampling; this is where the experimenter selects those who are convenient to him or her as respondents. I chose this sampling method due to the fact that we are students and have other school work to complete; therefore asking other students that are available is less time-consuming.

Advantages of this Sampling Method:
Through using this sampling method me it will be much easier to obtain a large sample in a short time frame as my sixth form has a canteen where a number of students around the sixth form converge on their free periods in order to socialize and rest. This will highly benefit me and my group. Moreover the sample gained from this method will allow me to generalise my overall results to the target population which is students from my sixth form.

Disadvantages of this Sampling Method:
This sampling method is an unrepresentative method of sampling as the sample cannot be used to generalise results gained from the experiment to a significant population. For e.g. the sample will only include female students mainly of Bangladeshi decent, making it challenging to generalise the results to the wider population. Also using opportunity sampling will not allow me to measure the reliability of the results.

Sample:
For the experiment a sample size of 18 female students aged between 16 and 18 were used.

Ethical Considerations:
In order to make sure that any of the British Ethical Guidelines are not breached me and other members in my group will make sure that we receive both verbal and written consent from students by asking for their permission at the beginning of the experiment and also getting them to sign a formal permission slip. Also the participants will be allowed to withdraw from the experiment at any time (during and after). We will fully debrief the participants of the purpose behind the study that they will have taken part in by the end of the experiment. And lastly we will bear in mind the protection of participants and safeguard that they are not exposed to any disturbing or inappropriate scenes when watching the video clip.

Standardised Instructions:
Group 1- Leading Question
(Before watching video)
‘Please take a seat and watch the video clip on the board quietly, do not speak to any of the other participants in the room’.
(After watching video)
‘What is your estimate for the speed of the red car in the video clip in miles per hour before it crashed?, do not discuss your answer with the person next to you; write down your estimate on the paper in front of you with the pen provided, one of us will collect your paper once you are done’.

Group 2 – Non-leading Question
(Before watching video)
‘Please take a seat and watch the video clip on the board quietly, do not speak to any of the other participants in the room’.
(After watching video)
‘What is your estimate for the speed of the red car in the video clip in miles per hour?, do not discuss your answer with the person next to you; write down your estimate on the paper in front of you with the pen provided, one of us will collect your paper once you are done’.

Procedure:
18 female students aged 16 - 18 formed an opportunity sample. This was a laboratory experiment with two conditions, one of which 9 participants were asked a leading question and the other where 9 participants were asked a non-leading question- only one condition was experienced by each participant. The 18 participants were randomly separated in to two groups. Participants in group 1 were shown a video clip of two cars racing and were asked a leading question. Participants in group 2 were also shown the same video clip, however were asked a non-leading question. Participants of both groups were then asked to estimate the speed at which the red car was being driven in the video.

Results:

| Group 1 – Leading Question | Group 2 – Non Leading Question | Estimation of Speed (mph): | 70 | 30 | | 60 | 45 | | 50 | 40 | | 90 | 33 | | 77 | 25 | | 68 | 50 | | 80 | 45 | | 80 | 45 | | 85 | 45 | Mean: | 73 | 40 | Median: | 77 | 45 | Mode: | 80 | 45 | Range: | 90 – 50 = 40 | 50 – 25 = 25 |

Graph:

Findings:
Looking at the graph it is evident that estimated speed was affected by the use of a verb in the question. The verb acted as a cue and inferred information about the speed which systematically affected the participant’s memory of how fast the car was being driven. Participants from group 1 who were asked a leading question - ‘What is your estimate for the speed of the red car in the video clip in miles per hour before it crashed?’ estimated higher speeds (over 50mph) than the participants in group 2 who were not asked a leading question, estimating speeds way below 50mph. Additionally group 1’s range was considerably higher than group 2’s showing that participants who were asked a leading question assumed that the car was going faster, but were in fact reconstructing by using their schemas and previous experiences in order to adapt their estimation to the question that they were being asked.

Conclusion:
Overall the experiment which I have carried out supports my hypothesis and suggests that memory is easily altered through the use of leading questions. Likewise the experiment also articulates that information obtained after an event can merge with a person’s own schemas and original memory resulting in inaccurate recollections of memory or reconstructive memory.

Evaluation:
The study which I have carried out is to an extent very reliable as it can be replicated. Throughout the experiment we made sure that specific details were regarded; for e.g. timing was strict and the experiments for both groups lasted for only 20 minutes, also participants from both group 1 and 2 were shown the video only twice in order to prevent irregularity in results, Also both groups were in the same environment for the duration of the experiment. However the experiment is low in ecological validity as it lacks realism and findings cannot be applied to real-life situations where participants would think there answer through thoroughly before giving their best estimate of how fast the car was going. In addition the findings of the experiment cannot be generalized to the wider population as all of the participants were female and predominantly Bangladeshi (very limited). One problem with the study is that participants were able to discuss their estimates as tables in the environment were not separated, and as a result their final estimates may have been influenced by other individuals around them. Nevertheless the study does have applicability and can be used in police stations to inform police inspectors to avoid using leading questions when interviewing a witness in order to prevent a witness’s original memory of the event from being distorted. Ethical guidelines were not violated and participants gave their full consent in taking part in the experiment.