Unit 2, Ind. Project ,

American Intercontinental University

Theories of Crime causation
Criminal justice 105

Abstract

This paper discusses the merits of the idea that genetics are a source for criminal behavior. The author of this paper includes examples that she found through research studies. The author also includes the results and findings for twin, adoption and testosterone studies that were conducted by top professionals in the study of genetics and the biological environments that surround us. The author also has listed some of the dangers of suggesting that there is in fact a criminal gene in the field of Criminal justice that is in existence and what the repercussions would be if it was proven to be the truth. This paper is informative and professionally cited.
Discuss the merits of the idea that genetics are a source for criminal behavior.
Criminality is definitely influenced by genetic factors as well as environment. For example studies were conducted among adopted children that have a biological parent that is a criminal these children have a higher risk of engaging in criminal activities, according to
Richard J. Hernstein. He asserts that there have been many other studies that confirm certain physical traits, such as muscularity, gender and some have an extra Y chromosome, these children were also at a higher risk of committing crime. Therefore the late Hernstein argues, it’s refutable that criminal behavior has a genetic source. All evidence points to behavior such as aggression which can possibly be inherited.
Some individuals may be predisposed and more at risk of developing criminal behavior than the average due to some biological difference. If in fact this difference is heritable, then the possibility for parents to pass on the tendency to their children is good. Twin studies, adoption studies, and testosterone studies.

Psychologists have the ability to identify patterns using twin or adoption studies, further, find associations between particular genetic testing which highlights aggressiveness or the lack of self control through their behavior. Mason & Frick (1994) performed meta-analysis on 12 twins and 3 adoptions studies investigating anti-social behavior that pertains to genetics of criminality. Their estimate totaled nearly half (48%) that verified that criminal tendencies are possibly genetically controlled. According to the studies conducted by Lagerspetz (1979) she bred 25 generations of mice. She chose the least aggressive mice to breed and the most aggressive mice to breed together. The results yielded two very different strains. The first offspring’s were very aggressive, while the other offspring’s were very docile. Even the set of mice that were cross-fostered to non-aggressive mother, even these mice demonstrated more aggressive behavior. (Lagerspetz & Wuorinen, 1965). This study proved that, (in animals), there is a genetic link to aggressive behavior.
Generally, men are more aggressive than women, a fact that has led researchers to investigate possible links between levels of male hormones (particularly testosterone) and aggressive or criminal behavior.
Studies performed by Dabbs et al., revealed that the collected data from two groups of prisoners, measured high testosterone levels in the saliva, were found to have committed more violent and sex related crimes, than the other inmates that were in custody for property crimes or drug related crimes. Furthermore, Dabbs et al. states that the higher testosterone level inmates had more violations of prison rules than that of the other inmates. . Even in women, Dabbs found, high testosterone levels were related to crimes of unprovoked violence, increased numbers of prior charges, and decisions against parole. There is no suggestion, however, that there is a single ‘gene for aggression’ in humans or animals. Nor is it that aggressiveness is the by- product bad genes; the environment in which surround you is important too.

Studies had results that focused on misbehavior and juvenile crime in thousands of twins. The monozygotic twins (identical twins that share 100% of their genes) were not that much more similar than the dizygotic twins (fraternal twins that share about 50%).

The findings suggest that their surrounding or environment rather is important in determining criminal behavior, however, the record states that the criminal and aggressive behavior in adult twins showed that the identical twins had more similarities. Which suggests that genetic factors become more important as adults? Which means as a child the individual has a controlled environment? For example, when a child is exposed to violent cartoons on the television. Where as adults, can make choices about how they behave. So we talked about genetics and environment as links to criminal behavior, there is evidence that suggest there may be a third component that is chemical reactions neither tied to nature or nurture. These reactions influence how our genetic code is expressed and how each gene is strengthened or weakened or how each gene is turned on or off. This is known to researchers as epigenetic processes. It’s how our bodies build our bones, brains, and every other part. If you think of our DNA as a guitar and the genes are the guitar strings —each string symbolizing a segment of DNA responsible for a particular note, or trait, and all the strings combined to make us who we are—then epigenetic processes determine when and how each string can be played, changing the tune being played. Studies of human pregnancy, for example, have shown that when a person experiences stress during pregnancy, it can cause epigenetic changes in a fetus that lead to behavioral problems as the child grows up.
Other epigenetic changes appear to occur randomly—it is like throwing a hammer into the mix of nature versus nurture. Still other epigenetic processes are normal, such as those that guide embryonic cells as they become heart, brain, or liver cells. Feinberg's study focuses on a particular epigenetic process called DNA methylation, which is known to make the expression of genes weaker or stronger. Samples of DNA from 2 sets of twins for epigenetic "tags," places along the genome where methylation changes the pattern of gene expression. Dabbs, et. al., (1995).
The goal of the study, still in progress, is to determine whether individuals that exhibit signs of criminal behavior have different methylation profiles than other people. If they do, that might explain how each twin could turn out so different from the other twin. Despite sharing the same motherboard, their bodies are going in different directions.
Intense examination of DNA sequences themselves hasn't revealed why twins sometimes differ in their behavior. "After 3 decades of molecular genetic studies we can explain only about 2 or 3 percent of inherited predisposition to aggressive behavior, the remainder is still a mystery. As Feinberg and Petronis readily admit, such research is still at an early stage. Scientists are only beginning to understand how epigenetic processes relate to complex disorders. The good news is that some of these processes, unlike our DNA sequences, can be altered. According to Dabbs, et. al., (1995) Genes muted by methylation, for example, may be able to be switched back on again fairly easily. Though we are years away from that type of technology, there is hope that in the near future that epigenetic mistakes will be as simple to repair as a guitar that is unturned.
It's very clear when you look at twins that much of what they share is predetermined, and that many things about them are identical and can’t be changed or altered. However after getting to know them but it's also clear, when you get to know them, that other things about them are different. Epigenetic is the origin of a lot of those differences, in my view.
Having said that, the latest work in epigenetic promises to take our understanding even further. Nature (DNA) which I say is written in pen and cannot be changed or altered, Nurture (environment or surroundings) is written in pencil and that of hand. That's epigenetic.
I feel that the police department should not dismiss these findings in a criminal case because

Each circumstance is different, and should be entered into court as evidence that the individual

May have a genetic predisposition to crime. Possibly the suspect may need rehabilitation for

This criminal behavior before it gets out of hand and is caught at an early enough time.
Some of the repercussions that I see if it were to be determined that there is in fact a criminal
Gene is that the off springs will be doomed for failure. That the off springs won’t have a chance
To be a good person with morals and ethics and that the offspring is destined to follow the
Footsteps of a criminal parent. This would be a waste of a life for generations to come.

References:
Richard J. Hernstein, “Genetics May Influence Criminal Behavior” opposing Viewpoints, Crime and Criminals, Ed. Tamara L. Roleff, San Diego, Greenhaven Press, 1999, August 2004, 17, June 2012 Retrieved from the internet on June 16,, 2012@http:// www.enotes.com/crime-criminals-article/41039
Dehryl A. Mason and Paul J. Frick (1994) The heritability of antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies,/ JOURNAL OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT, Volume 16, Number 4 (1994), 301-323, DOI: 10.1007/BF02239409
Lagerspetz, (1979) Criminal psychology Retrieved from the internet on June 16, 2012, @http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9781850082965.pdf
Feinberg and PETRONAS, (2012) Twin Studies issue National Geographic Magazine Retrieved from the internet on June 16, 2012. © 2012 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved
(1995), Linking Brain Dysfunction to Disordered/ Criminal/psychopathic Behavior, Volume 1,
No.3, Page 2, Retrieved from the internet on June 16, 2012

James M. Dabbs, Jr., et al. , (1995), "Testosterone, crime, Diff., Vol. 18, No. 5, 1995./ Address: James and misbehavior among 692 male prison inmates," M. Dabbs, Jr., Dept. of Psychology,Georgia State University, University Plaza, Atlanta, GA 30303- 3083.