...Getting Started: The Anatomy and Physiology of Clinical Research Stephen B. Hulley, Thomas B. Newman, and Steven R. Cummings This chapter introduces clinical research from two viewpoints, setting up themes that run together through the book. One theme is the anatomy of research-what it's made of. This includes the tangible elements of the study plan: the research question, design, subjects, measurements, sample size calculation, and so forth. An investigator's goal is to create these elements in a form that will make the project fast, inexpensive, and easy. The other theme is the physiology of research-how it works. Studies are useful to the extent that they yield valid inferences, first about what happened in the study sample and then about generalizing these events to people outside. the study. The goal is to minimize the errors, random and systematic, that threaten conclusions based on these inferences. Separating these two themes is artificial in the same way that the anatomy of the human body does not make much sense without some understanding of its physiology. But the separation has the same advantage: It clarifies our thinking about a complex topic. . THE ANATOMY OF RESEARCH: WHAT IT'S MADE OF The structure of a research project is set out in its protocol, the written plan of the study. Protocols are well kn~wn as devices for seeking grant funds, but they also have a vital scientific function: helping the investigator to organize her research in a logical, focused...
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...uminary ReviResearch Definitions and Study Guide for Luminary Comps HC3 - 2013 Ideology | Oversimplified explanations for social behavior that focus on one or a few variables to explain a social phenomenon. Ideologies are resistant to change and become entwined with moral, instead of empirical arguments. Begins and ends with facts. | Social Theory | A systematic, detailed means of explaining why a social phenomenon exists that recognizes the influences of a multitude of factors, is subject to change, and avoids moral arguments in favor of empirical arguments. Begins with a question and ends with facts. | Concepts or Constructs | Abstract terms people use to describe reality. People may share general definitions or understandings of a concept, but because they are abstract, the specific interpretation of these concepts among many people may differ. An abstraction. Cannot be measured directly. | Dimensions | A theoretical term used to describe clusters of concepts that together represent a broader, more complex concept. | Conceptual Definition | Is the working or “dictionary type” definition a researcher uses for a concept. It tends to be nonspecific | Operational Definition | Is used to define something (e.g. a variable, term, or object) in terms of a process (or set of validation tests) needed to determine its existence, duration, and quantity. | Measurement | The process of observing concepts, as indicated by their operational definitions, and assigning some...
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...TYPES OF RESEARCH The different characteristics of research: Research May be Applied or Basic The purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate, practical problem. Basic Research (Pure) adds to the existing body of knowledge; doesn't necessarily provide results of immediate, practical use. Research May be Obtrusive or Non-Obtrusive Obtrusive research - where the researcher introduces conditions that influence participants. Where the researcher manipulates the environment. Non-obtrusive research - where researcher avoids influencing subjects in any way and tries to be as inconspicuous as possible. 2 Four Main Types of Research Historical research - describes what was-mostly nonobtrusive Descriptive research - describes what is-mostly nonobtrusive Correlation research - makes comparisons, looking for trends or tendencies Experimental research - describes what will be - mostly obtrusive 3 Historical Research A systematic process of searching for information and fact to describe analyze or interpret the past Value-can provide prospective for decision making about current problems -issues are often better understood if we understand the historical perspective Sources-must have good backed sources to protect from criticism -most common sources are past records Descriptive Research Describes, interprets, and clarifies what in the present -often done with surveys -may be done by observation or an observational instrument Developmental Research is one common type of...
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...TYPES OF RESEARCH The different characteristics of research: Research May be Applied or Basic The purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate, practical problem. Basic Research (Pure) adds to the existing body of knowledge; doesn't necessarily provide results of immediate, practical use. Research May be Obtrusive or Non-Obtrusive Obtrusive research - where the researcher introduces conditions that influence participants. Where the researcher manipulates the environment. Non-obtrusive research - where researcher avoids influencing subjects in any way and tries to be as inconspicuous as possible. 2 Four Main Types of Research Historical research - describes what was-mostly nonobtrusive Descriptive research - describes what is-mostly nonobtrusive Correlation research - makes comparisons, looking for trends or tendencies Experimental research - describes what will be - mostly obtrusive 3 Historical Research A systematic process of searching for information and fact to describe analyze or interpret the past Value-can provide prospective for decision making about current problems -issues are often better understood if we understand the historical perspective Sources-must have good backed sources to protect from criticism -most common sources are past records Descriptive Research Describes, interprets, and clarifies what in the present -often done with surveys -may be done by observation or an observational instrument Developmental...
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...TYPES OF RESEARCH The different characteristics of research: Research May be Applied or Basic The purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate, practical problem. Basic Research (Pure) adds to the existing body of knowledge; doesn't necessarily provide results of immediate, practical use. Research May be Obtrusive or Non-Obtrusive Obtrusive research - where the researcher introduces conditions that influence participants. Where the researcher manipulates the environment. Non-obtrusive research - where researcher avoids influencing subjects in any way and tries to be as inconspicuous as possible. 2 Four Main Types of Research Historical research - describes what was-mostly nonobtrusive Descriptive research - describes what is-mostly nonobtrusive Correlation research - makes comparisons, looking for trends or tendencies Experimental research - describes what will be - mostly obtrusive 3 Historical Research A systematic process of searching for information and fact to describe analyze or interpret the past Value-can provide prospective for decision making about current problems -issues are often better understood if we understand the historical perspective Sources-must have good backed sources to protect from criticism -most common sources are past records Descriptive Research Describes, interprets, and clarifies what in the present -often done with surveys -may be done by observation or an observational instrument Developmental Research is one common type of...
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...The Impact of Landscape Aesthetics on the Experience of Highway Users 2016 Contents Chapter 1........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1 Background to the study .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9 1.3 Purpose of the Study.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13 1.4 Study Objectives .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.4.1 Ultimate Objective ......................................................
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...Recycled or reclaimed water refers to the former sewage or wastewater that has undergone biological treatment to remove impurities or solids (Hurlimann 83). Essentially, people and industries can re-use recycled water to satisfy domestic, industrial, agricultural, and commercial needs. The primary purpose of recycling wastewater is to conserve water, as opposed to discharging the treated water into rivers, oceans, and other surface waters. In effect, recycling water enhances environmental sustainability since the society reduces its demand for water by reusing the water at its disposal. However, many people often cringe at the thought of using or consuming recycled water owing to concerns about its safety. Indeed, concerns over the safety of the recyclable water have led to controversy over its usage across the globe. As a result, sections of the society oppose the use of reclaimed water for both domestic and industrial use. Nonetheless, people have been using recyclable water in the last few years, as water supply becomes increasingly scarce amid a rising demand for the invaluable commodity (Seah 12). Certainly, people should consume and use recycled water since it is safe owing to the high standards of treatment and purification of the wastewater during the recycling process. Firstly, the reclaimed water undergoes high levels of treatment, which ensures that the recycled water is fit for the intended home or industrial use. Indeed, the relevant water regulatory authorities and...
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...Question 2: The design portrayed in this example is a non-equivalent control group posttest-only design where each exam presented during the semester functions as a posttest measure. The teacher is utilizing one of the classes as a control group and one as the treatment group (for example, the weekly quiz group). The teacher is subsequently taking posttest measures by giving them exams. Since the participants were not randomly assigned to the two conditions and instead preferred the section of her class in which they enrolled, this is considered a quasi-experimental design. Question 4: There is no equivalent control group or random assignment. Question 6: A researcher may only desire data on the single participant being studied and, therefore, choose to employ single-case research. Secondly, single-case designs permit for simpler replication as only one additional participant is required rather than another group of participants (Jackson, 2012). Thirdly, group designs may influence error variance due to the rise in individual differences (Jackson, 2012). Consequently, single-case research would diminish error variance. Question 8:...
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...The history and evolution of materials used to make automotive engine blocks The engine is an essential part of an automobile that provides tractive force to drive the entire vehicle. Most of the current engines are the integral section of a vehicle which is built in different arrangements and more complex as compared to the early engines. The common parts present in an engine include camshaft, rocker arms, pistons, crankshaft, flywheel, both oil and fuel pumps and other various components. The discovery of both light, as well as stronger engineering materials in manufacturing different parts of an engine, has had an impact on power to weight of the engine thus making the entire automobile very light. An engine block or else cylinder block is the base of an engine that accommodates about all the parts needed for an engine to perform properly. There exist mainly three configurations of an engine block, that is, horizontally-opposed, “V”- shaped as well as inline configurations. The number of cylinders within these block configurations varies from a minimum of two to a maximum of sixteen depending on the power needed. Since an engine block is the most significant part of an engine, it should satisfy quite many functional requirements. The functional requirements include; 1. Housing of the moving components and the fluids, 2. Enduring the varying thermal pressures generated during combustion process, 3. Making the automobile last longer, 4. Maintaining of the engine...
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...validity. In game design validity is the correspondence between game world and real world. The approach I took was to review the article of threats to the validity of research by Parker, 1993. According to Parker, 1993, I define four type of validity. Which are internal validity, external validity, statistical conclusion validity and construct validity. To organize thoughts of paper, I would like to extend my point of view on validity I game design. By passing facts origins helps the community to find the truth in research. By collecting data and have the evaluate them and make it a valid structure. Validity can be use in adopting usability to group settings where validity represent the data from reality to meaning. For the design of games the distinction between internal and external validity have a slightly different meaning. Internal validity related to the content and how is it represented in the logic and structure of the game. Internal validity can be achieved by taking control some of the factors of a environment in a proper...
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...“Banana (Musa acuminato) peelings and Mango (Magnifera indica) peelings as an organic fertilizer for container plants” INTRODUCTION: Fertilizer is a substance used to promote plant growth. Natural or synthetic chemical substance or mixture used to enrich soil so as to promote plant growth. Plants do not require complex chemical compounds analogous to the vitamins and amino acids required for human nutrition, because plants are able to synthesize whatever compounds they need. It is mostly used in household gardens and farms around the world. It is useful in stimulating the plant growth so, it is most widely used. There are two types of fertilizers, the organic fertilizer and the inorganic fertilizer. They were both created to give off the same purpose; which is to stimulate a plant’s growth, but, there is a difference in their effects otherwise to Mother Nature. They are both made up of different compositions. Organic fertilizers are made of purely organic materials or chemicals while inorganic fertilizers are made up of the mixture of chemicals made by man and some chemicals which naturally come about from nature. Container plants are commonly found in households, one of the most frequently found container plant in households is the Palmera. It is an appropriate plant in testing the fertilizer. The banana (Musa Acuminata) and the mango’s (Magnifera indica) peelings both have chemicals composition (when rotten) that is as almost the same as the organic fertilizers...
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...Health Economics Abstract Studies, research, and conclusions on the effectiveness of substance abuse treatment programs are numerous. However, there does not appear to be a single answer or even a manageable set of solutions for how to effectively and efficiently treat those suffering the ill effects of substance abuse. This paper aims to make the case that the most effective way to deal with this problem is to attack it at the source, by trying to eliminate, or at the very least disrupt, the supply of illicit drugs available for purchase and consumption. The attempt to make this case is done by pointing out the mixed results of previous substance abuse treatment programs and by using systems theory to explain why the complexity of treatment options makes it difficult to accurately evaluate such programs. The Economic Impact on Substance Abuse The effect of substance abuse on the United States economy is astronomical. Consider that in 2004, almost a tenth of the nation’s population ages 12 and older were classified with substance abuse or dependence disorders (Morgan & Crane, 2010). The issue is so complex, in fact, it is nearly impossible to put an accurate price tag on the impact. If one focuses solely on the economic impact of this epidemic, one would have to calculate numerous costs. People who abuse and are addicted to illicit drugs spend hundreds and thousands of dollars to feed their habit, which is money that could be spent in more productive ways...
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...Bachelor of Engineering Civil Engineering First Year (First & Second Semester) • ENG Mathematics – I & ENG Mathematics II: 2D & 3D Coordinate Geometry; Differential Calculus; Infinite Series; Matrices,Ordinary differential equations of first and second order; Laplace Transforms; Vector Calculus • Elements of Mechanical Engineering & Elements of Civil Engineering Principle of virtual work,Rectilinear & curvilinear translation; Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis; Plane motion of a rigid body,Classification of force systems; Principle of physical independence of forces, Principle of superposition of forces, Principle of transmissibility of forces; Equivalent force – couple system; Resolution of forces, composition of forces; Types of supports, statically determinate beams, Numerical problems on support reactions for statically determinate beams and analysis of simple trusses ,Friction. • Engineering Physics Interference, diffraction and polarization of light; Nuclear fission, fusion, particle accelerators; Wave Particle Duality • Engineering Chemistry Physical Chemistry: Atoms, molecules and solids; phase equilibria; Galvanic & Fuel cells • Organic Chemistry: Types of reactions and reaction mechanisms; Concept of armaticity Computer Concepts & C Programming Introduction to digital computers; problem solving using computers; Programming in Fortran 77: Constants, variables,expressions...
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...Interventional or also known as experimental study designs includes randomized controlled trial (RCT) and quasi-experimental, however the most robust and considered the "gold standard" is a RCT (Polit & Beck, 2014, p. 156, Melynk, Morrison-Beedy, & Cole, 2015, p.455 ). In random control studies, the objective is to produce a design for analyzing the cause and effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables; thereby, using a control and an experimental group (Bevins, 1999). There various types of RCT that...
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...Basic Principles of Multimedia Design and Development find what they want. The best Milestones - Analysis Report, navigation is highly intuitive. Often Outline, Statement of Work web pages provide alternate paths Design Phase (e.g. - buttons, image maps, • Begin Design (Interface, hypertext.) Navigation, Graphics, Text Textual content should be Treatment) designed for accessibility and readability. Depending on the kind • Draft Flowcharts and of project, text may also need to be Storyboards printable and changeable. Detailing what it takes to do it right, During design it is also important to • Review and make any necessary revisions to designs, etc. this article describes some basic consider technology issues, such as: design principles, delineates the • Define and Build Rapid bandwidth, throughput, system phases of development, Prototype(s) requirements, etc. demonstrates appropriate analysis • Conduct Test of Rapid and defines some basic multimedia Development Prototype(s) with typical end terms. Here are the activities involved users during each phase of multimedia As the line between disk and webbased projects continue to blur, it becomes easier to communicate effectively using either or both. Capture and hold attention with multimedia. Combine audio, video and animated graphics with the written word, to deliver interesting, entertaining and compelling messages. Design Interactive design is probably the most exciting feature...
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