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Divine Kingship

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Pemerintahan dan pentadbiran merupakan salah satu ciri politik yang diamalkan oleh sesebuah masyarakat sejak kemunculan tamadun-tamadun awal dunia pada masa dahulu. Kebanyakan tamadun awal di dunia ini mengamalkan sistem pemerintahan beraja, iaitu sesebuah sistem pemerintahan yang diketuai oleh seorang raja yang berkuasa mutlak, yang sering mendakwa bahawa mereka menaiki takhta atas hak turun-temurun dan tidak tertakluk kepada kuasa parlimen atau institusi tertentu. Menurut Samsudin Abd Kadir, masyarakat di bawah corak pemerintahan ini memberikan kesetiaan yang tidak berbelah bagi kepada pemerintah mereka. Tamadun Mesir dan tamadun Indus merupakan antara tamadun awal yang mengamalkan sistem pemerintahan beraja. Dengan mengkaji corak pemerintahan beraja kedua-dua tamadun awal ini, kita dapat menilai konsep raja dari sudut pandangan rakyat dalam tamadun awal tersebut.

Pemerintahan Beraja Tamadun Indus
Tamadun Indus dipercayai wujud sekitar 2500 S.M di kawasan Lembah Indus yang disaliri oleh Sungai Indus. Tamadun awal ini merangkumi 60 buah kota dan antaranya Harappa dan Mohenjo-Daro merupakan kota-kota besar yang terkenal. Kegiatan ekonomi utama yang dijalankan oleh penduduk tamadun Indus termasuk pertanian, penternakan, perusahaan dan perdagangan. Dari segi agama dan kepercayaan, amalan pemujaan dewi ibu amat popular di kalangan masyarakat Indus. Patung-patung Dewi Ibu telah ditemui di sekitar Lembah Indus. Masyarakat Lembah Indus juga menyembah Dewa Brahma, Vishnu dan Siva, yang melambangkan penciptaan, pemeliharaan dan pemusnahan. Dalam pandangan masyarakat zaman itu, tuhan adalah bersifat ibu bapa kepada semua makhluk dan merupakan ketua bagi semua jiwa.
Pemerintahan tamadun Indus pada mulanya diketuai oleh pemimpin dari golongan pendeta yang berkuasa mutlak. Sistem pemerintahan ini bercorak teokrasi, iaitu pemerintahan yang tidak memisahkan agama dengan kuasa politik. Sistem pemerintahan beraja dan secara monarki hanya bermula apabila tamadun Indus memasuki empayar Maurya, yang diasaskan oleh Chandragupta Maurya. Setelah meluaskan kuasa ke kawasan-kawasan sekitar, pemerintah Maurya menggelar diri mereka sebagai sebagai maharaja dan mempunyai kuasa mutlak ke atas semua hal-ehwal negara. Melalui catatan dalam teks-teks seperti Taittiriya Upanishad, pemerintah tamadun Indus dipilih oleh Tuhan untuk melaksanakan pentadbiran dan memimpin negara. Ia juga menyebut bahawa pemerintah tamadun Indus dianggap sebagai pemimpin tentera yang bertanggungjawab melindungi rakyat daripada ancaman musuh. Oleh sebab pemerintah menjalankan amanah Tuhan di dunia manusia, maka rakyat perlu memberikan kesetiaan yang tertinggi kepada pemerintah mereka.

Pemerintahan Beraja Tamadun Mesir
Asalnya, petempatan Mesir terbahagi kepada dua bahagian iaitu Mesir Utara dan Mesir Selatan. Pengasas dinasti pertama Mesir Purba iaitu Raja Menes telah menyatukan kedua-dua kawasan Mesir Utara dan Mesir Selatan pada 3100 S.M, dan memulakan sistem pemerintahan beraja yang bercorak monarki di Mesir. Raja-raja yang memerintah Mesir menggunakan gelaran Firaun dan berada di kedudukan teratas dalam sistem pemerintahan tamadun Mesir. Mesir dikatakan diperintah oleh raja-raja dari kira-kira 30 dinasti. Penduduk Mesir tertumpu di kawasan sekitar Lembah Sungai Nil yang subur dan menjalankan kegiatan ekonomi seperti pertanian dan penternakan. Masyarakat Mesir diasaskan kepada pegangan agama yang kuat. Mereka percaya kepada konsep politeisme iaitu kepercayaan kepada banyak tuhan. Mereka percaya bahawa seluruh alam dikuasai oleh tuhan atau dewa-dewi. Antara tuhan atau dewa orang Mesir ialah Amon-Re(Tuhan Matahari), Osiris(Tuhan Sungai Nil), Isis(Tuhan Bulan), Nut(Tuhan Langit) dan Shu(Tuhan Udara).
Masyarakat Mesir turut mengamalkan konsep ketuhanan firaun. Mereka percaya bahawa firaun adalah tuhan atau anak tuhan. Pada zaman kerajaan Mesir yang lama, terdapat kepercayaan bahawa firaun adalah jelmaan tuhan Horus. Manakala pada zaman pemerintahan dinasti ketiga dan keempat, firaun dianggap sebagai anak tuhan matahari, iaitu Amon-Re. Konsep ketuhanan firaun menyebabkan firaun disembah oleh rakyat Mesir Purba. Firaun mempunyai kedudukan yang tinggi dan dipercayai mempunyai kuasa luar biasa. Rakyat mesti patuh kepada segala arahan firaun yang dianggap sebagai tuhan. Oleh itu, kepercayaan bahawa firaun adalah anak tuhan telah melahirkan kepercayaan yang tersendiri berbanding dengan kepercayaan tamadun-tamadun awal yang lain.

Konsep Ketuhanan Raja
Melalui konsep kepercayaan dan keagamaan yang dipegang, penduduk-penduduk tamadun Indus dan Mesir melihat pemerintah mereka sebagai individu yang lain daripada manusia yang biasa. Raja dilihat sebagai individu yang penuh kesaktian dan mempunyai kuasa yang tidak tertanding. Menurut Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja dan Ayadurai Letchumanan (1999), dalam tamadun Indus, pemerintah mereka dipercayai dipilih oleh Tuhan untuk menjalankan fungsi-fungsi yang terkandung dalam teks-teks suci seperti Brahman dan Undang-Undang Manu, manakala dalam tamadun Mesir pula, firaun dianggap sebagai Tuhan dan anak Tuhan, yang mempunyai kuasa luar biasa untuk memerangi kuasa-kuasa asing dan juga musuh-musuh spiritualnya. Konsep yang bersifat agama-politik ini dikenali sebagai konsep ketuhanan raja, iaitu satu konsep yang melihat seseorang pemerintah sebagai satu penjelmaan tuhan, manifestasi atau pengantara dari dunia suci. Konsep ini berasal dari sistem pemerintahan monarki yang bersifat teokrasi, di mana raja dipercayai mempunyai kuasa luar biasa untuk melindungi rakyat dan kerajaan dari sesuatu malapetaka. Menurut kepercayaan masyarakat tamdun awal, raja atau pemerintah dilihat sebagai pewaris kuasa magis yang luar biasa, dan mereka boleh menggunakan kuasa tersebut sesuka hatinya. Tetapi di bawah konsep ketuhanan raja ini, pemerintah dipercayai juga untuk bertanggungjawab atas kemakmuran hidup penduduk dengan mengawal komponen-komponen kehidupan yang penting seperti cuaca dan kesuburan tanah.
Menurut Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja dan Ayadurai Letchumanan (1999), terdapat banyak legenda dan mitos yang mengisahkan tentang asal usul institusi beraja tamadun Indus. Legenda yang paling awal mengisah tentang dewa-dewa mengadakan perbincangan dan melantik Soma sebagai raja untuk memimpin mereka dalam peperangan dengan Asura. Di samping itu, Taittiriya Upanishad pula mengisahkan tentang dewa-dewa yang memohon kepada Prajapati untuk menghantar Indra sebagai raja untuk memimpin mereka. Legenda-legenda ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa pada peringkat awal, raja dianggap ketua atau pemimpin dalam medan peperangan. Oleh itu ia mempunyai tanggungjawab memimpin dan melindungai rakyat daripada musuh. Tinjauan terhadap legenda-legenda ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa institusi kerajaan tamadun Indus bersifat ketuhanan. Dalam konteks ini raja-raja dipilih dan dilantik oleh Tuhan untuk menjalankan pentadbiran dan memimpin negara. Raja dianggap sebagai Tuhan dan bersifat abadi, serta dianggap memiliki kuasa luar biasa. Penduduk Mesir percaya bahawa raja akan memperolehi kuasa-kuasa magis melalui upacara pentahbisan dan ia diperkukuhkan melalui upacara-upacara khas seperti Vajapeya dan Asvamedha. Dalam upacara-upacara tersebut raja diidentifikasikan dengan Tuhan Indra, Prajapati dan Vishnu. Oleh kerana raja menjalankan fungsi Tuhan di muka bumi, maka rakyat perlu menumpukan taat setia kepada baginda.
Menurut konsep ketuhanan firaun yang dipegang oleh penduduk tamadun Mesir, firaun dianggap sebagai tuhan suci yang menguasai dan mengawal alam sekitar supaya rakyat hidup dalam keadaan makmur. Firaun mempunyai kuasa mutlak untuk memerintah dan dipercayai dapat melindungi rakyat di akhirat. Masyarakat Mesir Purba percaya bahawa firaun mempunyai kuasa misteri untuk melindungi rakyat daripada bencana. Walau bagaimanapun, konsep ketuhanan raja di Mesir mengalami perubahan mengikut peralihan zaman akibat perubahan dalam konsep keagamaan. Pada permulaan pemerintahan, firaun dianggap sebagai jelmaan Tuhan Horus. Selaras dengan kepercayaan ini firaun berhak mengerah rakyat untuk membina piramid yang merupakan lambang keagungan firaun. Menjelang zaman dinasti ke-5, firaun dianggap pula sebagai anak Tuhan Matahari, iaitu Amon-Re. Pada zaman tersebutlah berlakunya perubahan dari konsep firaun jelmaan Tuhan kepada konsep firaun anak Tuhan. Ekoran kejayaan orang Mesir mengusir kuasa asing, kebangkitan semangat nasionalisme dalam kalangan penduduk menyebabkan firaun dianggap sebagai ‘Dewa Perang Suci’(Divine War Lord). Kepercayaan ini menyebabkan firaun dianggap sebagai jelmaan Tuhan Menthu atau Baal.
Dengan kata lain, menurut Samsudin Abd Kadir, penghormatan rakyat terhadap rajanya bergantung kepada sifat dan kekuasaan ketuhanan yang ada pada raja itu. Misalnnya, menurut Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja dan Ayadurai Letchumanan (1999), penduduk tamadun Indus mempunyai hak untuk memberontak dan menggulingkan raja mereka sekiranya raja tersebut bertindak zalim dan gagal menjalankan fungsinya. Keadaannya berbeza pula dalam tamadun Mesir. Mengikut kepercayaan penduduk Mesir, kuasa yang dimiliki oleh firaun adalah abadi dan tidak hilang selepas kematiannya dan mereka percaya bahawa firaun yang meniggal dunia akan melindungi mereka di akhirat. Kepercayaan ini ternyata amat berpengaruh semasa pemerintahan raja-raja Kerajaan Lama Mesir. Pengikut-pengikut raja yang mangkat akan turut dibunuh dan dikebumikan bersama raja mereka untuk menemani dan membantu raja di syurga. Akan tetapi, amalan ini dihapuskan semasa pemerintahan dinasti ke-4.

Peranan Konsep Ketuhanan Raja dalam Pemerintahan
Raja-raja dalam sistem pemerintahan tamadun awal, yang suci dan bersifat ketuhanan, mempunyai tugas masing-masing untuk memerintah penduduk mereka, yang perlu dilaksanakan dengan baik dan sempurna. Peranan raja sebagai pembawa kuasa magis dan pengaruhnya ke atas komponen-komponen kehidupan rakyat seperti cuaca, kesuburan tanah dan kesihatan penduduk adalah jelas kelihatan. Raja perlu sentiasa menjaga kepentingan penduduk dan keselesaan hidup rakyatnya. Selain itu, raja juga bertanggungjawab untuk menjamin keselamatan penduduknya daripada ancaman musuh dan peperangan, di mana raja harus menggunakan pengetahuan mereka yang tertinggi untuk membuat keputusan strategik dan mengambil tindakan yang sesuai dan berjaya. Raja yang bersifat ketuhanan juga dilihat sebagai ketua agama dan kepercayaan masyarakatnya. Raja sebagai pembawa kuasa magis atau jelmaan Tuhan, berperanan untuk mentafsir serta menyebarkan petunjuk serta nasihat dewa-dewi yang disampaikan mungkin melalui mimpi atau firman. Oleh sebab raja dalam tamadun awal dipercayai mempunyai pertalian dengan Tuhan, kuasa kehakimannya tidak dapat dinafikan. Seseorang raja yang bersifat ketuhanan perlulah sentiasa berusaha mengawal keseimbangan sosial serta melindungi hak setiap penduduknya.
Dalam sistem pemerintahan beraja tamadun Indus, raja merupakan ketua kerajaan. Raja juga merupakan ketua hakim, penasihat dan penggubal undang-undang dan juga ketua tertinggi angkatan tentera. Kuasa raja tidak terhad. Raja melantik penasihat-penasihat untuk dijadikan pembantu dalam pentadbiran. Di samping itu wujud juga Majlis Menteri, iaitu beberapa jabatan diwujudkan yang diketuai seorang penagawas. Di samping itu terdapat kelas-kelas pegawai penting yang akan membantu raja semasa berlaku hal-hal kecemasan. Kelas pegawai ini dikenali sebagai Mantri atau Mantri Parishad. Terdapat juga badan-badan yang tediri daripada pegawai-pegawai yang terlatih yang mengendalikan hal ehwal pentadbiran biasa. Kelas pegawai tersebut termasuk pegawai daerah, pesuruhjaya bandaran dan badan-badan yang mengendalikan hal-ehwal ketenteraan. Pegawai daerah bertanggungjawab dalam memungut cukai, mengukur tanah, mengawasi kerja-kerja pengairan, mengawal paras air, kerja-kerja pendaftaran kelahiran dan kematian, mengawasi pengeluaran barang-barang perdagangan, penipuan dalam perdagangan, urusan denda dan hal-ehwal orang asing. Oleh kerana tanah jajahan Dinasti Maurya sangat luas, maka Chandragupta Maurya telah melantik pegawai-pegawai untuk mentadbir wilayah. Beliau telah membahagikan empayar Maurya kepada 4 buah wilayah penting iaitu Barat Laut, Barat Kalinga dan Selatan. Setiap wilayah diletak seorang wizurai yang biasanya terdiri daripada putera-putera raja. Wilayah itu dipecahkan pula kepada beberapa kawasan tertentu. Pada peringkat ini ia ditadbir oleh gabenor. Kawasan itu dipecahkan pula kepada beberapa daerah yang lebih kecil. Daerah itu dipecahkan lagi kepada beberapa kampung.
Dalam tamadun Mesir pula, peranan raja dapat dilihat dalam bidang pentadbiran, agama, kehakiman dan ketenteraan. Dalam bidang pentadbiran, firaun merupakan sumber autoriti dan mempunyai kuasa mutlak. Firaun dipercayai menguasai dan mengawal alam semesta. Kuasa firaun juga dianggap berkekalan selepas kematiannya. Dalam bidang keagamaan, firaun menjadi ketua agama. Golongan pendeta memainkan peranan penting dalam melakukan upacara keagamaan. Di samping itu, firaun juga bertindak sebagai ketua hakim dan bertanggungjawab mewujudkan keadilan dalam negara. Menurut Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja dan Ayadurai Letchumanan (1999), orang Mesir percaya bahawa firaun mempunyai tanggungjawab berat untuk memelihara Maat. Firaun dipersonifikasikan sebagai lambang Maat. Maat boleh ditakrifkan sebagai peraturan, kebenaran ataupun keadilan. Firaun yang memelihara Maat dengan baik dapat memulihkan keadaan anarki dan mewujudkan keamanan dalam negara serta meningkatkan kesuburan dan pengeluaran hasil pertanian. Peranan firaun dalam bidang ketenteraan tidak terkecuali. Selain daripada tugas di atas, firaun turut bertindak sebagai ketua panglima tentera. Untuk membentuk institusi kerajaan yang harmoni dan seimbang, firaun memberi mandat kepada pegawai-pegawai kerajaan yang terdiri daripada anggota kerabat diraja untuk menjalankan tugas dalam bidang sekular dan keagamaan. Firaun turut melantik wazir sebagai ketua eksekutif negara dan menerima laporan daripada wazir mengenai perkembangan dalam negara setiap hari. Biasanya wazir akan mengetuai peperangan bagi mewakili firaun.
Menurut Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja dan Ayadurai Letchumanan (1999) juga, salah satu ciri yang membezakan tamadun Mesir dengan tamadun awal yang lain ialah dari segi pewarisan takhta. Tamadun Mesir juga memberikan pengiktirafan kepada wanita sebagai pemimpin. Masyarakat Mesir menganggap wanita adalah golongan yang perlu dihormati. Dari segi teori dan praktikal, takhta firaun diwarisi oleh anggota keluarga sebelah perempuan. Dengan demikian, hanya puteri mahkota yang berhak untuk mewarisi takhta. Namun selepas berkahwin ia akan menyerahkan hak memerintah kepada suaminya. Puteri mahkota akan menjadi permaisuri raja. Kebiasaannya, puteri mahkota akan berkahwin dengan abang kandungnya sendiri untuk mengekalkan kesucian darah keturunan diraja. Namun begitu, dalam situasi seperti tidak terdapat abang kandung, maka puteri mahkota akan berkahwin dengan orang asing.

Kesimpulan
Tuntasnya, dalam sistem pemerintahan beraja tamadun awal seperti tamadun Indus dan tamadun Mesir, wujud konsep ketuhanan raja dalam sistem pemerintahan tersebut. Hal ini disebabkan pegangan agama yang kuat oleh penduduk tamadun awal tersebut dan usaha para pemerintah untuk mengekalkan kedudukan sendiri. Namun, konsep raja bersifat ketuhanan telah mengalami perubahan sepanjang sejarah kerana berlakunya perubahan dalam kepercayaan dan agama masyarakat. Kewujudan konsep ketuhanan raja ini menyebabkan kedudukan raja menjadi mantap dan kukuh. Misalnya kepercayaan raja bersifat Tuhan mengukuhkan kedudukan raja dan institusi kerajaan di Mesir. Raja-raja di bawah konsep ketuhanan raja ini mempunyai kedudukan dan kuasa yang tinggi serta berkuasa mutlak dalam bidang perundangan, eksekutif, dan kehakiman. Kedudukan politik yang kukuh akan membawa kepada perkembangan dalam bidang politik, ekonomi, sosial dan keagamaan. Walaupun raja menubuhkan menteri-menteri dan melantik pegawai-pegawai untuk membantu dalam kerja pentadbiran, pengagihan kuasa masih kurang jelas dalam tamadun awal. Raja dilihat berperanan dalam semua bidang.

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...St. Thomas Aquinas’ “Summa Theologica” he bases the relationship between nature and grace on the human purpose. Since we are all rational beings with an ultimate goal of reuniting with God, Aquinas’ believes that both grace and nature will allow us to achieve the human goal. Aquinas explains that reason and revelation parallel moral development of virtue and grace. Reason is something you can practice, much like the four cardinal virtues temperance, courage, justice, and wisdom. These three theological virtues faith, hope and love help you achieve grace. These virtues come from gift of God’s grace and perfect the natural abilities of humans to know and love. “According to Thomas natural reason can know the external world without divine illumination and can discern the structure of created things through its sciences. Reason has a legitimate domain in analyzing the human person, ethics and politics. Thomas even extends reason’s competence to certain ‘spiritual’...

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...Analysis of Major Characters Dante Alighieri Thirty-five years old at the beginning of the story, Dante—the character as opposed to the poet—has lost his way on the “true path” of life; in other words, sin has obstructed his path to God. The Divine Comedy is the allegorical record of Dante’s quest to overcome sin and find God’s love; in Inferno, Dante explores the nature of sin by traveling through Hell, where evil receives punishment according to God’s justice. Allegorically, Dante’s story represents not only his own life but also what Dante the poet perceived to be the universal Christian quest for God. As a result, Dante the character is rooted in the Everyman allegorical tradition: Dante’s situation is meant to represent that of the whole human race. For this reason, Dante the character does not emerge as a particularly well-defined individual; although we know that he has committed a never-specified sin and that he participates in Florentine politics, we learn little about his life on Earth. His traits are very broad and universal: often sympathetic toward others, he nonetheless remains capable of anger; he weeps at the sight of the suffering souls but reacts with pleasure when one of his political enemies is torn to pieces. He demonstrates excessive pride but remains unsatisfied in many respects: he feels that he ranks among the great poets that he meets in Limbo but deeply desires to find Beatrice, the woman he loves, and the love of God. Dante fears danger but shows...

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The Inferno of Dante-Pain

...The Sounds of Hell Whenever you hear sound in The Inferno of Dante, torture or pain are either coming from tormented souls or is near. Throughout this novel, we not only see images drawn in our minds by Dante, but can in vision what Dante is going through from the sounds described in each Canto. We see Dante’s hearing and understanding develop to a more mature level as he faces different souls and hears their suffering. Our first instance of sounds imagery is in Canto III (3). Upon entering the Inferno, Dante hears tortured shrills coming from those who are unsure of where their loyalties lie and never choose a side. He hears their pain and begins to weep, for the pain he hears symbolizes everything he is about to face while he is in the Inferno. Since Dante has compassion for those in pain, he is forced to listen to the groaning and screams coming from the tortured souls in order that he may come to a level of acceptance with those who are in the rings of the Inferno. We also see sounds imagery in Canto IV (4). “Breaking the deep sleep that filled my head,/ A heavy clap of thunder startled me up/ As though by force” (Canto IV lines 1-3). Since Dante was not yet accustomed to the Inferno, the Inferno woke him up with a loud clap of thunder in order that he may become better accustomed to the sounds of torture. Dante expected to hear tortured souls, especially because Virgil’s face became white with pity for the pain the virtuous pagans face in the first circle of the Inferno...

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Ethics

...also the idea of the synderesis principle, which states that we “naturally do good to avoid evil”. St Thomas Aquinas’ argument was sought to reconcile Christian thought with the Greek thinking of Aristotle’s work, which could be seen in Islamic libraries in the Fall of Toledo, where Christian armies reconquered Spain. Aquinas sees goodness in the Divine Essence (nature of God), which was his first law. His second law was the idea of ‘eternal law’ which he said was reflected in our own human nature and the ends in which we rationally pursue, which draws parallels to the synderesis principle, which opposes the idea of ‘reformation’ which proposes the idea that “we have all sinned and fall short of Gods glory” as portrayed in Romans 3-23. God’s Divine and eternal Laws are further proposed in the Holy Scriptures, such as the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20. From these observable, rational ends, we get the five primary precepts. The Primary Precepts are “good wills” that we rationally pursue, and are absolute. They consist of preservation of life, order in society, worshipping God, education and finally, reproduction. This reflects the Divine Will, whereby God creates us as rational beings and in His image, which is proven in Genesis 1:26-27. However, due to our society today, there have been some changes to the primary precepts, which is specifically notable in Veritatis Splendor, which is a document that have subtly made some changes to the...

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...August 20, 2015 3.2.13 Practice: Revision Strategies The tempest one of the most difficult Shakespearean works in my opion to stage, from its stormy, chaotic first scene to its sureality to its ambiguous resolution, with Prospero facing his silent, treacherous brother and renouncing the power that has made every action in the story possible. Potent language remains the central force and mystery of this fathomless play. Prospero speaks almost a third of the lines in The Tempest, and controls the amount of speech every other character on the island has through manipulation and magic. Prospero’s narrative of how he came to the island, what he did once there, and what he is owed for this history, goes largely unchallenged in the text. Yet the play offers innumerable readings and opportunities for alternate staging, particularly in light of postcolonial discourse about Prospero’s relationship with Ariel and Caliban, the legitimacy of his authority, and the nature of his magic and command over language. Though Prospero can be played many ways, there is no doubt he is The Tempest’s show runner. The metatheatrical nature of the play sometimes detracts from its action on the page, but it also offers the chance to explore exactly why Prospero needs an audience for his revenge, and whether or not it satisfies him, onstage. Prospero restricts the sight and knowledge of the other characters, putting them to sleep or manipulating them with invisible forces, but he often lets us, the audience...

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The Human Body In Dante's Inferno

...The human body has always interested me. The way that it dramatically changes throughout life and events that we are not able to control. Dante endures a similar fascination with the human body and its changes a parts on his journey through hell through the Inferno. Even reading this a second time, I was able to make even more personal connections with the book than I previously had. I have had many experiences where my view of the human body was being ruined by uncontrollable forces. Much like me, Dante’s fascination with the body often leads to disgust of even pain when it is ruined. Not long ago while I was still in my boarding school, my grandmother that I called Nana had a heart attack. She is fine now, but it worried our entire family and led me to apply to Paideia in order to visit her more frequently. When I got the opportunity to visit her for the first time in a year, she did not appear to be my Nana anymore. Her chubby body was now gone and replaced with skin and bones, it horrified me because I loved and respected her so much and could not even recognize her after her heart attack. Dante’s experience with the Sodomites mirrored my own disbelief when I was unable to recognize someone so important to my life. When we enter Canto 16, we see three shadows running toward Dante. He is first confused by their presence, but once Virgil asks for Dante’s respect toward the shadows, he is willing to hold a conversation with them. These three shadows that surround Dante are...

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...In the texts The Divine Comedy, On Law Morality and Politics, and Revelations of Divine Love, there is a central theme of divine justice. In Dante’s Inferno, divine justice is God’s will for mankind and the order of the universe. In Saint Thomas Aquinas’ text, divine justice is the consequence of straying away from divine law. Finally, in Julian of Norwich’s work, the purpose of divine justice is to earn God’s mercy and eventually reside in his presence. Using different understandings of divine law and justice, each author is uniquely able to convey a similar message – mankind’s purpose is to achieve salvation and be in God’s grace. In Dante’s The Divine Comedy, the nature of justice seems to be impartial and unexempt from anyone. Specifically,...

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...In the Story of Inanna’s journey into hell, Inanna, the God of Fertility has decided that she is going to go descend to Hell, the Land of Death. Before doing this however, Inanna makes sure that she has a backup plan in case she were unable to get back from the land of the death. She enlists the help of her Minister Ninshubar whom tells the truth to go forth after her departure to her the other Gods to have them call her back to the heavens. Inanna puts on her godly armor of crows and robes before descending into hell. However, when she gets there, things do not go exactly as planned. Upon her arrival, she is asked by hell servant Neti what her reason for coming down to hell was. Instead of giving her a straight answer, Inanna lies about her...

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Examples Of Humanism In Dante's Inferno

...establish their relationship, Virgil leads Dante the Pilgrim on his journey through Hell. Not only does he lead Dante on a physical journey, he also teaches Dante lesson about morality. He teaches Dante that if he pities the sinners, it would lead to a recursive process in Dante’s spiritual development. While Dante and Virgil come across Bolgia four in the eighth circle, where the fortune tellers dwell, Dante felt pity for the sinners until Virgil says, “… There is no place/ for pity here. Who is more arrogant/within his soul, who is more impious/than one who dares to sorrow at God’s judgment?” (XX: 27-30) Virgil warns Dante the pilgrim about the dangers of pitying those who defied God. His usefulness deprives from his logical understanding of divine punishment, a characteristic that Dante the Pilgrim learns throughout his spiritual journey. As Dante’s Hell depicts punishment for those who defy God’s will. The sinners in Hell deserved the punishment that he or she receives. Virgil, as Human Reasoning, logically understands. Dante, due to his lack of development, cannot comprehend this concept. In the introduction of the Inferno, Dante cannot...

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