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Economic Ecology

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El debate que comprende la interacción entre comercio internacional, medio ambiente y desarrollo sustentable se ha intensificado debido a la combinación de dos procesos casi simultáneos: la preocupación por el medio ambiente y la liberalización del comercio internacional.

Los síntomas de degradación ambiental son alarmantes: los bosques tropicales están desapareciendo a una tasa anual de 17 millones de hectáreas, que corresponde a un área equivalente a cuatro veces el tamaño de Suiza; una superficie vegetal tan grande como Norteamérica, fue degradada por las actividades económicas entre 1945 y 1990; una veintena de países han estado consumiendo toda su agua dulce renovable anualmente, esto quiere decir que la disponibilidad del recurso hídrico para la supervivencia de las generaciones futuras esta comprometida, y otros sucesos más, han dado lugar a una preocupación sentida por parte de algunas esferas académicas y autoridades mundiales (Hauwermeiren, 1998).

Esta preocupación tiene dos horizontes importantes. Por un lado, tiene que ver con la capacidad de la función abastecedora del planeta para generar los recursos naturales suficientes requeridos por la dinámica económica acelerada de los últimos cien años. Por otro lado, con la capacidad de la función receptora de poder asimilar la carga de vertimientos generados por la actividad productiva. Esta situación ha permitido la aparición del concepto de Desarrollo Sostenible como forma de integrar las consideraciones ambientales dentro de las políticas de desarrollo económico.

Por tanto, el concepto de desarrollo sostenible es concebido como un proceso armónico donde la explotación de los recursos, la dirección de las inversiones, la orientación del cambio tecnológico y las transformaciones institucionales deben propender por la atención de las necesidades de las generaciones presentes y futuras (Madruga, 2001).

La estrategia usada por los países participantes en la economía mundial ha sido la liberalización comercial. Se argumenta que ello permitirá obtener un mayor crecimiento económico, y por ende, un mayor bienestar social y ambiental. La teoría clásica del comercio internacional (CI) ha impulsado este pensamiento, asumiendo que la apertura comercial permitiría un incremento de los ingresos en las economías, favoreciendo la demanda por calidad ambiental. En esta lógica, el comercio es un juego de suma positiva en términos económicos y ambientales, en el que las partes involucradas siempre resultaran beneficiadas.

Ante esta posición, ha surgido una visión reflexiva sobre los efectos que puede tener el comercio internacional sobre el ambiente: la economía ecológica (EE). Esta corriente de pensamiento concibe al sistema económico como un subsistema de la biosfera, abierto a la entrada de energía y materiales y a la salida de residuos, donde no son reconocidos por el sistema de precios del comercio internacional los costos ambientales y el agotamiento del patrimonio ecológico de los países exportadores de materias primas (Pérez, 2004). Por esta razón, para la EE el comercio internacional no es un juego de suma positiva en términos ambientales entre los participantes ya que el intercambio entre estos es económica y ecológicamente desigual.

En este contexto, la crítica ecológica al comercio internacional tiene dos horizontes: i) El cuestionamiento a las relaciones positivas entre crecimiento económico y protección ambiental (Falconi et al, 2006), y ii) El intercambio ecológicamente desigual entre países.

En el primer caso, la crítica se centra en la llamada Curva Ambiental de Kuznets (CAK), asociada esta con la noción de que el crecimiento económico -calculado en PIB por habitante- provoca una menor presión ambiental o uso de los recursos naturales en el tiempo. El principal problema que surge de esta concepción es que se admitiría la degradación ambiental con el fin de expandir la economía, donde los costos de reposición de procesos irreversibles como la pérdida de biodiversidad podrían ser infinitos.

En el segundo caso, los países del Sur se especializan en la exportación de materias primas a precios que no toman en cuenta las externalidades originadas en su extracción. Generalmente, el destino de estas exportaciones son los países del Norte, para la elaboración de productos manufacturados. Bajo esta realidad, se produce lo que se ha denominado la “deuda ecológica”, que es el costo social y ambiental generado en la producción y/o extracción de un bien y que no se refleja en el valor de la exportación del mismo (Dillon, 2000). Esta es una forma de ¨dumping ecológico”, pues las economías más extractivas son generalmente pobres e incapaces de reducir la tasa de explotación de sus recursos, tienen pocas opciones para diversificar sus exportaciones con bienes que generen menor impacto ambiental, y tienen dificultades de internalizar las externalidades en los precios, lo que se explica por la falta del poder político y económico de estas regiones. Ello se convierte además en una estrategia de competitividad en los mercados internacionales. Se trata entonces, de un problema que va más allá de las fallas del mercado. Las externalidades más bien son formas exitosas de transferencia de costos a terceros (Cabeza y Martínez Alier, 1997), pues la intensificación de las exportaciones extractivas del Sur empobrecen el medio ambiente del cual depende la población local para su propia reproducción y para la extracción futura de mercancías primarias de exportación (Bunker, 1985).

El resultado del no reconocimiento de los costos ambientales en el precio de las materias primas exportadas genera un pasivo ambiental por parte de los países del Norte frente a los países del Sur. Esto se debe no solo a aspectos de tipo político sino también a que no ha sido cuantificado monetariamente.

Una primera aproximación empírica al planteamiento realizado en este documento es el análisis monetario y biofísico del comercio exterior (CE) colombiano de los productos de la cadena del cuero, mostrando como el patrón de comercio ha respondido básicamente a la teoría de las ventajas comparativas, mediante la especialización en la producción y exportación de bienes intensivos en los factores productivos para los cuales el país presenta mejor dotación (mano de obra no calificada y recursos naturales); lo cual tiene importantes implicaciones ambientales.

Las exportaciones

Como se puede apreciar en el Gráfico 1, la dinámica monetaria de las exportaciones de la industria del cuero en el periodo analizado fue muy importante al pasar de US$ 23 millones en 1974 a US$ 176 millones en 2005. En este lapso de tiempo analizado se distinguen tres ciclos. El primero ascendente que va desde 1974 a 1992, con un gran crecimiento a partir de 1985, explicado por la fuerte recuperación de los mercados industrializados que aumentaron la demanda de estos productos y la depreciación del tipo de cambio real; precisamente ocurrida bajo el gobierno de Betancourt en 1985. En este periodo además, se fortalecieron los instrumentos de promoción de exportaciones, entre ellos el Plan Vallejo, el Cert y los créditos de Proexport.

A partir de 1992, y hasta el 2000, se presentó un ciclo recesivo, el cual correspondió al periodo de apertura económica tanto de bienes como de capitales y a la liberalización de los mercados. Con el agotamiento del modelo de sustitución de importaciones y de promoción de exportaciones, se llegó a la conclusión de que la mejor vía para aumentar los niveles de crecimiento económico era una apertura indiscriminada; por esta razón, la industria del cuero se vio afectada en sus exportaciones al pasar de US$ 218 millones en 1992 a US$ 109 millones en 1999.

GRÁFICO 1
EXPORTACIONES E IMPORTACIONES COLOMBIANAS EN TÉRMINOS
MONETARIOS DE LA INDUSTRIA DEL CUERO (1974–2005)

FUENTE: DANE (Anuario de comercio exterior, ACE). Elaboración propia.

Finalmente, viene un periodo de leve recuperación entre 2000 y 2005, asociado a la baja demanda en el mercado nacional ante una persistente importación y contrabando de calzado y a la sustitución de cuero por material sintético; esto ha obligado a los empresarios a continuar con la búsqueda de mercados en el exterior.

Las importaciones

El mismo Gráfico 1, permite identificar la evolución de las importaciones para el periodo analizado, encontrando básicamente dos etapas. La primera, caracterizada por un comportamiento muy estable desde 1974 hasta 1992; la segunda, donde inicia una senda de crecimiento importante pasando de US$ 30 millones en 1992 a US$ 99 millones en el 2005. La estabilidad en el comportamiento de las importaciones en la primera etapa evidencia los efectos de la política de sustitución de importaciones acompañada de una permanente presencia de instrumentos de protección de tipo arancelario y no arancelario. (Esguerra y Rueda, 1992).

Por su parte, el despegue de las importaciones a partir de 1992, es el resultado de un claro efecto de la apertura comercial que liberalizó la adquisición de todo tipo de mercancías en el exterior.

Este es el modelo de dependencia que caracteriza a la economía colombiana, y en este caso, al sector cuero: exportaciones ricas en recursos naturales (RN) y mano de obra no calificada, frente a importaciones de bienes intensivos en capital y poca intensidad de RN. Los efectos ambientales del comercio en este contexto de dependencia se constituyen en el centro de análisis de este trabajo.

Balance Comercial

El balance comercial monetario para el periodo presenta una constante situación de superávit, acentuada en el periodo 1985 - 1992 gracias a la política de promoción de exportaciones (Gráfico 1). En el año 1985 el superávit era del orden de US$ 48 millones subiendo a US$ 187 millones en 1992. A partir de 1993, debido a las nuevas condiciones comerciales provocadas por la liberalización de la economía nacional, este superávit monetario se reduce en forma significativa. En este año era de US$ 191 millones pasando a US$ 76 millones en 2005. Balance Biofísico del Comercio Exterior de la Industria del Cuero

Luego de evidenciar que el patrón monetario del comercio internacional del cuero colombiano, se ha caracterizado por la tendencia a exportar bienes con menor valor agregado y mayor impacto ambiental e importar bienes más elaborados dentro de la cadena del cuero, es necesario abordar ahora el balance biofísico de este sector que permita acentuar tal análisis.

El balance biofísico se obtiene restando las importaciones (M) de las exportaciones (X) en términos de toneladas, al revés del balance comercial monetario. Un déficit biofísico en el comercio exterior de un sector para un país se manifiesta cuando las exportaciones son mayores a las importaciones, lo que implica en términos netos el traslado de una carga ambiental promovida por un país importador y asumido por un país exportador. Si el déficit biofísico presenta una tendencia constante y creciente, indica que la relación entre tonelada exportada e impacto ambiental es más amplia, o lo que es lo mismo, la deuda ecológica es cada más significativa. De igual manera, la composición del déficit biofísico en el comercio exterior de un país en un sector determina que actividad dentro de este asume un mayor deterioro del patrimonio ambiental a través de mayores traslados de carga ambiental (Yánez, 2003).

En el Gráfico 2, las exportaciones son mayores a las importaciones en todo el periodo estudiado, incrementándose esta diferencia como ya se ha mencionado a partir del año 1990. El balance total durante los 31 años analizados arroja un déficit biofísico neto de 279 mil toneladas de materiales que han salido de Colombia rumbo a otros países. Esto evidencia de forma significativa el concepto de “costos ambientales trasladados o promovidos” de un país a otro. Colombia asume en términos netos los costos implícitos de contaminación y agotamiento de los RN para mantener los niveles de consumo de otros países.

GRÁFICO 2
BALANCE COMERCIAL FÍSICO DE LA
INDUSTRIA DEL CUERO (1974–2005)

FUENTE: ACE, DANE. Elaboración propia.

El déficit en este periodo para el sector del cuero es creciente y permanente lo cual implica una deuda ecológica acumulada asociada a las transacciones comerciales a favor del país generada por los países importadores; esto es así porque en los precios de exportación de los productos del cuero no se incluye el deterioro de los recursos naturales y los impactos ambientales generados por esta actividad productiva.

Un balance final arroja una clara evidencia del intercambio ecológica y económicamente desigual entre Colombia y el resto del mundo dentro de la cadena del cuero. En este caso, Colombia se ha venido especializando en la exportación de bienes natural-intensivos dentro de la cadena con mayor impacto ambiental y con poco valor monetario por tonelada y en la importación de bienes capital-intensivos (calzado y sucedáneos del cuero) donde el valor por tonelada es más elevado. De esta manera se reconoce la existencia de lo que se ha denominado “costos ambientales trasladados o promovidos”. Mientras Colombia exporta productos del cuero intensivos en RN que otros países demandan para sus actividades de producción y de consumo, el país es el que asume sus costos implícitos de contaminación y agotamiento de los RN.

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