There are several areas that need to be explored when taking into consideration the economics of bionic human engineering because there are multiple parties involved in these considerations that include, the scientists, the patients, the doctors, the investors and the insurance companies. The culmination of these entities are what drive the research to happen in the first place based on the supply and demand strategies that the business environment drives. The interest in this technology for the scientist can stem from several different interests like personal interest in helping others, expanding technology, producing new ideas, and mainly an income source that will provide profitability for themselves and the companies that they work under. This profit margin on these types of technologies is what drives large scale companies to invest time and money into researching bionic engineering for human use. The risk of developing this type of technology is huge based on the amount of money needed to invest initially while still maintaining continuous investments throughout the life of the project itself. The benefits that all of these companies strive to obtain becomes endless once they have a working prototype that they can present to other investors. Most of these companies decide to produce the products themselves once they have perfected it, but there is a small amount that will sell the results to a company that is willing to then take on the responsibility of manufacturing the products. Overall the underlying priority of human bionic engineering is to provide the customer with a product that will allow them to function in the absence of the necessary human body parts needed to live a daily life while maintaining a profit that will allow them to continue research and development. The necessary investments needed to expand this technology are becoming increasingly large due to the complexity of integrating these bionic limbs/organs into the human body. The scientist not only has to be able to develop something that will function, but function within the parameters of the human mind to make them perform as a normal body part. Investments in this technology are somewhat limited due to the risk involved compared to the rewards that will be reaped once it has been developed with most of the money coming from government grants or outside independent companies wanting to increase the standard of living for injured individuals. One of the most significant investments found during researching the topic was an $18.5 million investment from the National Science Foundation to the University of Washington in conjunction with San Diego State University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Block, 2011). This grant invests in the research and development of how the human body uses the brain to communicate with the parts of the body used to control motor skills which will allow for the integration of bionics. This piece of the development is crucial to the success of programs that will benefit from this technology once the limbs or organs have been developed for human testing. Another benefit of this research grant are the programmers that will inevitably be involved in integrating this technology into the design of the bionic limbs that will one day allow someone to stand up, walk or even run in the future. However, the investments that have been discussed are not in proper proportion to the financial gains that can be found by producing these for mass production to the public, instead they lie in the initial development of the technology. The underlying companies that will benefit from the production of bionic assemblies are companies like Microsoft, Lockheed Martin, Intel Corp and NeuroVista Corp just to name a few. They have the ability to produce and market these items to the public once they are fully functional and properly tested. These companies not only have the financial resources to expand the implementation of bionic body parts, but the backing of the industry in their proven technologies to drive the inception into the medical field. Fortunately for them the initial investment can be small while still reaping the rewards from the finished product. Another economic reason that these companies invest time and money into these products is that they can be used to increase the efficiency of employees with disabilities or support veterans that are coming back from a traumatic experience during war time. This technology allows them to make otherwise less fortunate individuals able to produce the same or even better results than another person that is not in need of the limbs. There is a twofold approach to this type of investment which is first and foremost the finances and the second is winning the eye of the public because once the company makes large investments in helping others they will then see this pay back dividends with other investors. The main source of funding comes from foundations and charities that are interested in providing disabled individuals with a better quality of life compared to what is sustained without the help of these bionic limbs. The charities provide disabled individuals not only the ability to obtain limb replacements, but the rehabilitation therapy needed to use them successfully once fitted. There is a specific organization that supports the needs of many people in need which is http://limbsforlife.org/ and they provide these limbs without any requirements other than being a United States citizen that has no other means for obtaining these prosthetics. In this case the nonprofit organization has no financial gain from helping individuals, but they play a pivotal role in the industry because they provide the support necessary to learn to use these prosthetics. They use money that is gained through outside donations to benefit the people in need of bionic limbs, which is a large contributing factor in the success of the movement to not only provide prosthetics, but ones that provide more than the average prosthesis. One of the most influential researchers in the bionic prosthetic department is Otto Bock Healthcare out of Germany as they not only provide bionic limbs, but they provide the physician care and suppliers that develop the products for the open market ("Ottobock - Home," n.d.). They pride themselves on being one of the industry leaders in prosthetic replacement fabrication, industry training and delivery and billing. This information is relevant to the economics of bionic limbs because it proves that even for-profit organizations are willing to devote their time and money to the research and development of these products. The company has been in the prosthetics and bionic limbs market since 1919 in Germany while opening their doors in the United States in 1958, which makes them one of the first companies to enter the market entirely. The most interesting part about their company is that they not only provide the products to their customers, but develop training materials for other companies in their industry which shows that the economics of the business is not only about inventing new technologies. The time they devote to their patients and peers in the industry shows that bionic body parts are much more than what could ever been conceived from researching just the economic aspects. The most overwhelming part of bionic limbs and other prosthetics is the cost of these devices because they can be devastating to any economic class of individual. There is no denying that the need for bionics is increasing, but the costs of these devices is also increasing and at a rapid rate with the current state of the medical field. Prices are continually growing in all aspects of the medical field because of the insurance companies and their cost cutting strategies to increase profits. These increases stem from the cost to produce these limbs for the patient and with every limb being custom fitted it make it that much harder to mass produce them on a scale that will drive down costs. Increasing the cost of production of materials, labor and overhead inevitably increases the costs that the customer will incur for obvious reasons, which is the profit that the companies are trying to make off of their products. The largest costs involved in producing these limbs stems from the research and development costs because there are several different organizations that were able to produce limbs for as little as $20 ("Students Design High Tech, Low Cost Artificial Limbs - The Takeaway," n.d.). However this does not take into account the cost of developing the necessary software to integrate these limbs into the human brain to allow them to move. When evaluating the cost of a bionic limbs and mass production there are many larger factors that come into play like software development based on individual’s needs, fitting to specific sizes, quality of materials used and longevity of the limbs. The fact that the average limb lasts for 3 to 5 years increases the need for these companies to come up with solutions that are much more agile and versatile when it comes to providing the patient with the longevity needed to sustain a long lasting limb. Overall the materials is the cheapest part of the product and the least likely to affect the costs of production when comparing it to R&D or overhead needed to produce them. The most interesting cost analysis of one of the exoskeleton suits that has been developed is that it cost a measly $15,000 to produce, but did not have quite the capabilities that we are discussing with neuro-integration (Conneally, 2013). There is a bionic war happening in the global market which has started to drive down the costs of these limbs. The modern era of global economy has helped to advance the improvements of not only the quality of bionic limbs, but the cost as well. The best way to understand how a global vs. national economy plays part in driving down the costs of bionic limbs is by analyzing as you would any other business. For example, when you have one single supplier of a product they are able to drive the cost to overwhelming highs, but when you introduce 10-20 other companies into the race it will substantially drive down the costs of the product. This is a prime example of the economics of a global vs. national level economics because it shows how even one extra supplier can influence the price of goods. On the other hand the problem that results from this global race is that the quality of products tends to drop due to the need for cost cutting, which drives the price up of the “higher end” devices. This increase in price is used to stay profitable in the quality markets that can afford to pay higher prices for goods such as the United States. The benefit to a national market compared to a global market is that the products can be developed in one location and then produced in that same location without having to outsource the work to other countries, which at times increases other economic factors such as material cost, shipping and storage of goods. The downfall is that this market can be controlled just like any other by not allowing imported goods into the supply to the patients driving the costs up. Overall human bionic engineering will always benefit the most from the global market because the higher the supply the lower the price has to be to keep up with the demand. Insurance coverage is a completely different aspect of the economics of bionic prosthetics because they too are trying to make money off of the health care industry. The average coverage for prosthetics is limited at $2,500 to $5,000 per year which may seem like a large amount, but is trivial when compared to the cost of the devices (Smith, 2013). A prosthesis from the knee down can range anywhere from $5,000 to $50,000 depending on the complexity of the device which will be closer to the higher price when considering bionic devices. These devices usually last approximately three to five years which is very interesting because it indefinitely increases the costs associated with maintaining them. The insurance companies only cover the amounts that are incurred on the year that they are purchased/obtained which eliminates the ability of spreading the cost over the life of the unit. Also, the least understood or accounted for part of a prosthesis is the rehabilitation costs that come with every new device which is much higher with the initial device. There are often times when the money spent on the device costs more than the annual coverage so the patient is stuck with covering the remaining portion as well as the all of the rehabilitation costs. This type of coverage is also not something that is normally covered under all insurance plans and can be very costly to add to a plan that does not already cover it under normal conditions. The worst part about insurance coverage is that a lot of times the patient is not covered if an incident occurs before they pay for the additional coverage or if a prior condition exists they are not able to obtain that coverage. Assistance for individuals with disabilities is one of the most challenging things to overcome when it comes to bionic limbs because there is a limited amount of people that are trained to support these types of needs. There are special organizations that specialize in this type of care like the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago which developed the first fully functioning bionic leg in 2013 ("World's First Bionic Leg Makes Headlines - Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago," 2013). They have very successful scientists that possess the knowledge and skills to help individuals with their newly fitted bionic limbs, but at the same time this help is few and far between. When a patient from a different region needs attention they may have to travel to a specialty organization like this one or they may have to seek alternative options with all of the costs coming out of pocket because the insurance company does not consider this a cost of the prosthesis. Local support can be requested from certain organizations, but with this technology being so new to the public there are few people that are truly qualified to understand the mechanics necessary to help patients perform with their new limb while coping with the mental stress added by the device itself. Patients with new limbs will also need other things like physical therapy, psychological treatment, financial assistance and/or travel support that will not be covered by the insurance provider that they subscribe to. There are several solutions to supplying the instruments to patients that need them and that all range based on requirements of the patient, quality of the device and out the door costs. Many of the companies that provide these devices as a solution to disabilities also provide some of the physical rehabilitation support that goes along with them, but not all of the companies do. The majority of the companies that provide these devices are suppliers that then sell the device to the hospital that the patient is working with directly. In these cases it works out for the patient because they are able to “expense” the entire process to their insurance as services provided by the hospital, but this is not always the case. Some of the major companies that are starting to support the production or supply of these devices are Allard, Alps, Aspen, Ballet, and BCP Group with many of them specializing in the bionic field ("All Companies | oandp.com - Orthotics & Prosthetics Info," n.d.). These companies ensure that there is a consistent supply to the patients that need them and they also support customizing them to each customer’s specifications. These services however do come at a cost to the customer because these are special products with a low amount of competition in the supply department that is capable of developing and producing them. The persons that need this type of device can range from anyone that was born without a limb to patients that lost their extremities in a motor vehicle accident or even individuals that have diseases that require amputation. Bionics allow for support of all types of needs from limb replacement to the things like hands or feet which can be particularly hard to control. However, it is not always the best solution for individuals with mental disorders that do not possess the necessary motor skills to function the devices through neurosciences in the brain. Even though these applications assist many types of individuals they are still not consistent enough to help everyone that may benefit from them. There are certain applications where these devices will not provide an overall benefit to the patient due to their personal situation. For example, an individual that has an amputation that still causes them pain will not benefit from having the moving limb on a consistent basis and may better benefit from less technological alternatives. The need for these devices is growing as we have many different situations in our modern society that can cause a need for them throughout a person’s life. Many times people will become disabled during the course of their life, which to them it is much more important to maintain the same lifestyle that they had before the accident. The most recent increase in need for bionic limbs has come from the wars that have ensued in the past couple of decades that have left many willing and capable individuals with loss of limb accidents. The military and Veterans Administration are the main source for the increase in need for limb replacement that keeps the individuals fully functional in everyday life situations because most of the patients are very young and still need to provide for their families. The most recent war in Iraq and Afghanistan has left many individuals with war wounds that require the use of prosthetics. In the past couple of decades advances in the medical field has made it much easier for veterans to survive traumatic situations that were previously considered life threatening. The downside to these medical advancements has left many of our veterans with situations that leave them without a limb. The need to treat these patients with bionic limbs that leave them capable of still functioning and working in normal society drives the increase in developments of these bionic solutions. Since the inception of the war on terrorism there have been 1,158 United States military limb loss situations that are all cases that will need solutions such as prosthetics or bionic limb replacement (Wallace, n.d.). These cases are the entire reason why bionics are and will continue to be a technology that continues to advance itself into the next couple of decades. The one benefit to this increase, although not a very good upside, is that the increase for the need of these devices will drive down the costs of limb replacement will continue to go down as new suppliers enter the market. In the long run these improvements will only benefit the people in need of bionic limb replacement and benefit the overall economics of bionic limb replacement. The need for limb replacement is not going to decrease in the near future nor will it be something that ever ceases to exist. This being said the economics of bionic limb replacement is an ever changing environment because as new technologies are introduced the costs keep climbing to provide them to the people in need. However, the more suppliers that enter the market and the race to improve the technology in the devices will drive the costs down that are incurred by patients. Economically it only makes sense for companies and insurance companies to invest the time and money needed to fully develop these solutions into a meaningful and lasting technology of the future. The medical professionals will have no choice, but to become more educated in the field therefore providing better solutions and rehabilitation solutions to their patients. This class of medical bionic limb replacement remains a new technology that is still being researched and developed, but with the help of supply and demand there will be many new solutions developed over the next decade or so. The newest technology of neuroscience in bionic limbs is catching on very quickly to assist patients with limbs that require them to be able to move them without the need of controls or external help from an outside person. Overall the economic stance for bionic limbs is becoming a viable option for the future as all parties, insurance companies, patients, doctors and medical research facilities stand to gain from the increasing necessity for the devices.

References
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All Companies | oandp.com - Orthotics & Prosthetics Info. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.oandp.com/products/viewall.asp
Block, G. (2011, July 14). SDSU Part of $18.5 Million Effort to Create Mind-Machine Interface. Retrieved from newscenter.sdsu.edu/sdsu_newscenter/news_story.aspx?sid=73038
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Wallace, D. (n.d.). Trends in traumatic limb amputation in Allied Forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. Retrieved from http://jmvh.org/article/trends-in-traumatic-limb-amputation-in-allied-forces-in-iraq-and-afghanistan/
World's First Bionic Leg Makes Headlines - Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago. (2013, September 26). Retrieved from http://www.ric.org/worlds-first-bionic-leg-makes-headlines/