MASENO UNIVERSITY
School of development and strategic studies

DEPARTMENT: International relations and Diplomacy with IT

COURSE: Middle East in International Relations

COURSE CODE: DIR 307

LECTURER: Ms Cyprine Aduogo

YEAR OF STUDY: 3rd year, 1st semester

TASK: Group Work

DATE OF PRESENTATION: 1st October 2012
QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE GENERAL OUTLOOK OF IRAQ

GROUP MEMBERS

NAMES REG NO SIGNITURE
1. Tari Elizabeth Qabale DS/0002/010
2. Sessia Sammy Kipyegon DS/3005/010

INTRODUCTION

Country formal name: Republic of Iraq and the local long form is (Jamhuriyyat al-Iraq)
Convectional short form: Iraq and the local short form is al-Iraq
Continent: Asia
Country Motto: Allahu-Akbar (God is the Greatest)
National Anthem: Mawtini (My Homeland)
National symbol: Golden Eagle
Terms for citizens: Iraqi(s)
Capital city: Baghdad which lies in the center east of the country and actually the largest city.
Current president: Jalal Talabani
Current Prime Minister: Nouri Al-Maliki

Year of independence: From United Kingdom on 3rd October 1932 and was declared a republic on 14th July 1958.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Historically, Iraq was known in Europe by the Greek troponin ‘Mesopotamia’ meaning the land between the rivers. Iraq has been home to numerous civilizations since 6th century BC. The ruins of Ur, Babylon and other ancient cities are situated in Iraq as well as the legendary location of the Garden of Eden. The region between Tigris and Euphrates rivers is identified as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing and the wheel. The water from these two rivers as well as the fertility of the soil in the alluvial plain and the delta allowed early agriculture to sustain the population as early as 6 BC. Once known as Mesopotamia, Iraq was the site of flourishing ancient civilizations, including the Sumerian, Babylonian and Parthian cultures. Muslims conquered Iraq in the seventh century A.D. In the eighth century, the Abassid caliphate established its capital at Baghdad. The territory of modern Iraq came under the rule of the Ottoman Turks early in the 1500s.
At the end of World War I, Ottoman control ended and Iraq came under the authority of a British mandate. When it was declared independent in 1932, the Hashemite family, a branch of which also ruled Jordan, ruled as a constitutional monarchy. In 1945, Iraq joined the United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League. In 1956, the Baghdad Pact allied Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom, and established its headquarters in Baghdad.
Gen. Abdul Karim Qasim took power in a July 1958 coup, during which King Faysal II and Prime Minister Nuri as-Said were killed. It was on 14th July 1958 that it was declared a republic. Qasim ended Iraq's membership in the Baghdad Pact in 1959. Qasim was assassinated in February 1963, when the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Ba'ath Party) took power under the leadership of Gen. Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr as prime minister and Col. Abdul Salam Arif as president.
Nine months later, Arif led a coup ousting the Ba'ath government. In April 1966, Arif was killed in a plane crash and was succeeded by his brother, Gen. Abdul Rahman Mohammad Arif. On July 17, 1968, a group of Ba'athists and military elements overthrew the Arif regime. Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr reemerged as the President of Iraq and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC).
In July 1979, Bakr resigned, and his cousin Saddam Hussein, already a key figure in the Ba’ath party and the RCC, assumed the two offices of President and RCC Chairman. The Iran-Iraq war (1980-88) devastated the economy of Iraq.
Iraq declared victory over Iran in 1988 but actually achieved only a weary return to the pre-war status quo. The war left Iraq with the largest military establishment in the Gulf region and with huge debts.
Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, but a U.S.-led coalition acting under United Nations (UN) resolutions expelled Iraq in February 1991. After the war, Kurds in the north and Shi'a Muslims in the south rebelled against the government of Saddam Hussein. The government responded quickly and with crushing force, killing thousands, and pursued damaging environmental and agricultural policies meant to drain the marshes of the south. Coalition forces enforced no-fly zones in southern and northern Iraq to protect Iraqi citizens from attack by the regime and a no-drive zone in southern Iraq to prevent the regime from massing forces to threaten or again invade Kuwait. In addition, the UN Security Council required the regime to surrender its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and submit to UN inspections. When the regime refused to fully cooperate with the UN inspections, the Security Council passed a series of Chapter VII sanctions to prevent further WMD development and compel Iraqi adherence to international obligations.
Citing Iraq’s failure to comply with UN inspections, a U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq in March 2003 and removed the Ba'ath regime, leading to the overthrow of the dictator Saddam Hussein. Following his capture in December 2003 and subsequent trial, Saddam Hussein was executed on December 30, 2006, by the Government of Iraq. The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) assumed security and administrative responsibility for Iraq while Iraqi political leaders and the Iraqi people established a transitional administration. The CPA’s mission was to restore conditions of security and stability and to create conditions in which the Iraqi people could freely determine their own political future. The UN Security Council acknowledged the authority of the Coalition Provisional Authority and provided a role for the UN and other parties to assist in fulfilling these objectives.
The CPA disbanded on June 28, 2004, transferring sovereign authority for governing Iraq to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG). Based on the timetable laid out in the Transitional Administrative Law (TAL), the IIG governed Iraq until elections were held on January 30, 2005; thereafter, the Iraqi Transitional Government assumed authority.
In May 2005, the Iraqi Transitional Government appointed a multi-ethnic committee to draft a new Iraqi constitution. The new constitution was finalized in September 2005, and was ratified in a nationwide referendum on October 15, 2005. On December 15, 2005, Iraqis again went to the polls to participate in the first national legislative elections as established by the new constitution. The new 4-year, constitutionally-based government took office in March 2006, and the new cabinet was approved and installed in May 2006. By that time, following the February 2006 bombing of the Golden Mosque in Samarra, violence in the country was widespread.
The ongoing violence and instability prompted the United States to increase troop numbers in Iraq (the “surge” in U.S. forces) in an attempt to improve the security situation and give Iraqi political leaders an opportunity to address the many problems that plagued the Iraqi people. Following the troop increase and adjustments to military strategy, violence declined, thereby providing political space and an improved environment for leaders to make progress on difficult national issues.
In January 2009, two bilateral agreements between the United States and the Government of Iraq took effect: First, the “Agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq On the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq and the Organization of Their Activities During Their Temporary Presence in Iraq” referred to as the “Security Agreement”, which governed the presence and status of U.S. forces in Iraq and addressed the withdrawal of these forces. Secondly the “Strategic Framework Agreement for a Relationship of Friendship and Cooperation between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq” referred to as the “Strategic Framework Agreement” or “SFA”, which set out a variety of areas and aims for bilateral cooperation and formed the basis for a long-term partnership with the people and Government of Iraq and which remains in effect.
On January 31, 2009, Iraq held elections for provincial councils in all provinces except the three provinces comprising the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, and Kirkuk province. On March 7, 2010, Iraq held national elections in which parties competed for positions in the Council of Representatives and the executive branch.
In June 2009, in accordance with the bilateral Security Agreement, U.S. forces withdrew from cities, villages, and localities in Iraq. On August 31, 2010, President Barack Obama announced the end of major combat operations, the completion of the withdrawal of all U.S. combat brigades, and the transition of the role of the remaining U.S. military force of 50,000 troops to advising and assisting Iraqi security forces. On October 21, 2011, President Obama announced the full withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq by year’s end pursuant to the Security Agreement. U.S. Forces-Iraq completed the withdrawal by December 18, 2011. A traditional security cooperation relationship is maintained through the presence of the Office of Security Cooperation-Iraq, which is comprised of a small group of U.S. military and civilian advisors and contractors who work with the Iraqi security forces, helping them to receive, maintain, and operate defense-related articles.
GEOGRAPHY
Location: It is a country located in Western Asia (Middle East) spanning most of the North Western of the Zagros mountain range, eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the Northern bordered by part of Arabian Desert. Iraq is 181km away from Jordan to the West, Syria to the Northwestern (605 km), and Turkey 352 km to the North, Iran to the east and both Kuwait (240km) and Saudi Arabia (814 km) to the south. Its geographical coordinates is 33 00 N 44 00 E.
Area: The total area is 438,317 sq km of which 950 sq km is covered by water and the rest of 437,367 sq km is land. It is comparable in size of the US state of California and somewhat larger than Paraguay.
Climate: Mostly desert, mild to cool winters with dry, hot, cloudless summers; northern mountainous regions along Iranian and Turkish borders experience cold winters with occasionally heavy snows that melt in early spring, sometimes causing extensive flooding in central and Southern Iraq.
Terrain: It is mostly broad plains: reedy marshes along Iranian border in south with large flooded areas; mountains along borders with Iran and Turkey.
Physical features: Iraq mainly consists of desert, but near two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m3 of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611m, locally known as Cheekah dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline measuring 58km along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shett al-arab there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s.
Natural resources: With its 143.1 billion barrels of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves, yet the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90% of the country remain unexplored. Other natural resources include natural gas, phosphates and sulfur.
Natural hazards: natural hazards in Iraq includes dust storms, sandstorms and floods
Environmental current issues: government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Marsh Arabs, who inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of natural habitat poses serious threats to areas wildlife populations. There is also inadequate supplies of potable water , development of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey ,air and water pollution ,soil degradation and erosion ,desertification.

PEOPLE AND NATIONALITY
Population: The country had a total number of 31,129,225 people as at July 2012 with a density of 71/km2. It is 39th highly populated in the world. This population is distributed among the major cities which include: Baghdad with 5.751 million, Mosul with 1.447 million, Erbil with 1.009 million, Basra with 923,000 and Sulaymaniyah with 836,000 people as in 2009.
Ethnic composition: Iraq is home of several ethnic groups, the most numerous of which being Arabs (75%-80%) followed by Kurds (15%-20%), Syriac-speaking people and Iraq Turkmen. Other distinct groups are Armerians, Persians, Mandeans, the Roma, Mhalami and finally the Lurs.
Language: Arabic is the most commonly spoken official language whereas English is the most commonly spoken foreign language. Kurdish is also another official language. Regional languages include Syriac-Aramaic and South Azeri also called Turkmen. Minor languages include Neo-Aramaic Armenian and South Azeri.
Religion: Islam is the most dominant religion comprising up to 95% of the population with Shia Muslims making up to 65% of the Islamic population and Sunni Muslims 35%. Christianity and other religions comprise between 2-5% of the remaining population.
Birth Rate, Death Rate and population growth rate: Its birth rate is 28.29 births out of every 1000 population while death rate is 4.73 deaths per 1000 population and the general population growth rate is 2.345% as established in world fact book July 2012.
Life expectancy at birth .The total population has an average of 70.85 years where the male’s average is 69.41 years while for the female is 72.35 years.
Education :It is generally agreed upon that before 1990,the education system in Iraq was one of the best in the region in addressing both access and equality .However ,the situation began to deteriorate rapidly due to several wars and economic sanctions .Since then ,major problems have emerged that are hindering the system ,and include lack of resources ,politicization of the educational system ,uneven emigration and internal displacement of teachers and students .security threats and corruption.
Since the 2003 invasion and the fall of the former dictatorial regime (Saddam Hussein)/Iraqis with the help of international agencies and foreign governments, have been frameworks that would begin to address the issues at hand.
Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq ,the coalition provisional authority ,with substantial international assistance ,undertook a complete reform of Iraq’s education system .Among immediate goals were the removal of previously pervasive Baathist ideology from curricula and s substantial increases in teacher salaries and training programs, which the Hussein regime neglected in the 1990s.
Despite endless daily challenges, the education system in Iraq continues to function. Actions thus far include 3600 schools rehabilitated, 120,000 teachers recruited, Focus on girls’ education Curriculum Reform, Provision of Learning Resources, Distance learning programs for out of school children (i.e. in Syria), Organizational chart reform and Increasing collaboration with External partners.
ECONOMY
Currency: The Iraqi national currency is called Iraqi dinar.
Trade: Iraq’s economy is characterized by a high dependence of oil exports and an emphasis on development through central planning. The petroleum sector traditionally provides up to 95% of foreign exchange earnings. Prior to the outbreak of war with Iran in September 1980, oil production had reached a level of 3.5 million barrels per day and oil revenues hit an all time high of $21 billion in 1979. In the 1980’s financial problems caused by massive expenditures during the eight year war with Iran plus damage to oil export facilities led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily and this resulted in Iraq’s economy to suffer losses totaling $80 billion.
Iraq’ seizure of Kuwait in August 1990 was followed by international economic sanctions which greatly devastated economic activity. After the 2003 invasion the economy shrank even further; from the peak of 1980, the nominal GDP of Iraq had steadily declined reaching $ 12.3 billion in 2000.
However, since mid 2008, oil export earnings have returned to higher levels. There has also been an improved security environment and a wave of foreign investment which is helping to spur economic activity particularly in the energy, construction and retail sectors. Removal of sanctions after the overthrow of Saddam had immediate effect; the nominal GDP had reached $ 55 billion in 2007.
The GDP of Iraq rose from 56% in the 1960s reaching a peak growth of 57% in the 1970s. However, in the mid 1980s, GDP per capita shrank by 23% amid the Iran-Iraq war. Currently, according to 2011 World Bank estimate, the GDP of Iraq is US$115.4 billion and a GDP per capita ranging from between %3, 537 to $3600.
Inflation stands at 4.2%. 74% of the population aged 15 years and above can read and write. However, the female literacy level stands at 64.2% compared to the male which stands at 84.1%. One of the key challenges of Iraq’s economy is its immense foreign debt estimated at $ 125 billion in 2009. Unemployment remains a persistent problem and in 2009 it was approximated at 15.3%.
Agriculture: Agriculture is the nation’s largest employer. Because of ethnic politics, valuable farmland in Kurdish territory has not contributed to the national economy, and inconsistent agricultural policies under Saddam Hussein discouraged domestic market production. Despite its abundant land and water resources, Iraq a net food importer. Under the UN oil for food program, Iraq imported large quantities of grains, meat, poultry, and dairy products. The government abolished its farm collectivization program in 1981, allowing a greater role for private enterprise in agriculture. In 2004 the main agricultural crops were wheat, barley, corn, vegetables, dates and cotton.
Industry: Traditionally, manufacturing activity in Iraq is closely linked to the oil industry. The main industries in this category include: oil refining, chemicals, textiles, leather, food processing, metal fabrication and fertilizers. Before 2003, and hindered the restrictions on diversification through privatization and the effects of international sanctions of the 199os. Since 2003, the security problems prevented efforts to establish new institutions. Building and construction industry is an exception; in 2000 was only cement industrial product that does not depend on oil and gas.
Forestry, fishing and Mining: Over the exploitation of the 20th century rights and shifting cultivation, forest fires and uncontrolled grazing denuded large areas of natural forests for Iraq, which in 2005 was almost exclusively, confined the north-eastern highlands’. Most of the trees in that area are not suitable for cutting wood. In 2002, trees were harvested to a total of 112.000 cubic meters of wood, about half of which was used as a fuel.
Despite the numerous rivers, the fishing industry in Iraq has been relatively small, and depends heavily on marine species in the Persian Gulf. In 2001, 22,800 tons were fished.
Apart from oil and gas, the mining industry has been confined in Iraq to extract relatively small amounts of phosphate, salt and sulfur. Since the productive period in the 1970s the mining industry impeded because of the Iran-Iraq war (1980-88) and the sanctions of the1990s led to the economic collapse of 2003.
CULTURE
Music and dance: Iraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The maqam Al-Iraq is considered as to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. As the name implies, it is native Iraq; it has been known for approximately four hundred years. This form of art is recognized UNESCO as “an intangible heritage of humanity” Unfortunately due to the catastrophic invasion of the United States, this art form is being threatened with dwindling numbers of students and masters. The folk songs of Iraqi Turkmen are also well known.
Early in the 20th century many of the most prominent musicians were Jewish. One of the reasons for the predominance of Jewish instrumentalists in early 20th century was because Iraq music was a prominent school for blind Jewish children, which was founded in the late 1920s. many of the students became musicians.
Art and Architecture: some important cultural institutions in the capital include Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra, rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal. The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.
Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq- which houses the world’s largest and finest collection of artifacts and relics of Ancient civilizations; some of which were stolen during the occupation of Iraq.
In some cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, and some interesting works connected with drainage.
Sports: Football is the most popular sport in Iraq. Football is a considerable uniting factor in Iraq following years of war and unrest. Basketball, swimming, weightlifting, body building, boxing, kick boxing and tennis are also popular sports.
Cuisine: Some characteristics ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include vegetables such as tomato, onion, potato, garlic, peppers, and chili, cereals such as rice, bulgur, wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas, and cannellini, fruits such as date, melon and citrus fruits especially lime and lemon.
Other Iraqi essentials include butter, olive, yoghurt, cheeses and herbs and spices such as cinnamon and cardamom. Similarly with other countries of Western Asia chicken is favorite meat. Most dishes are served with rice. Meals begin with appetizers and salads- known as Mezze. Some popular dishes include Kebab (often marinated with garlic, lemon and spices then grilled), Shawarm, shish (grilled meat sandwich wrap), and Bamia (lamb, okra and tomato stew) and Masgouf grilled fish with pepper and tamarind.
Broadcast media. The number of private radio and TV stations has increased rapidly since 2003, government-owned TV and radio stations are operated by the publicly-funded Iraq public broadcasting service, private broadcast media are mostly linked to political, ethnic or religious groups; satellite TV is available to an estimated 70% of viewers and many of the broadcasters are based abroad; transmissions of multiple international radio broadcasters are accessible.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Political systems and structures: The federal government of Iraq is under the current constitution as an Islamic Democratic Federal Parliamentary Republic. It has a multiparty system. The Iraqi Government is divided into three major arms as follows:
Executive branch:
The chief of the state is President Jalal Talabani since 6th April 2005; vice presidents Tariq al-Hashimi and Khudayr Musa Jafar Abbas al-Khuzai. The executive power is exercised by prime minister who appoints the council of Ministers and who acts as the head of the government, Nouri Al-Maliki hold this position since 20th May 2006.
The council of Ministers consists of the Prime Minister and the cabinet Ministers he proposes, approved by an absolute majority vote by council of representatives. President is elected by council of representatives (parliament) to serve a four-year term and he is eligible for a second term. It was last held on 11th November 2010 where President Jalal and Al-maliki were reelected as President and Prime minister respectively. The next election is to be held in 2014.
Legislative Branch.
Iraqi has a unicameral Council of representatives which are 325 seats consisting of 317 members elected by an optional open-list and representing a specific governorate (provinces), proportional representation system and 8 seats are reserved for minorities. Members serve for four year terms. Their elections were last held on 7th March 2010 for an enlarged 325-seat parliament and the next to be held in 2014.
Judicial branch.
The Iraqi constitution calls for the federal judicial power to be comprised of the higher judicial council, Federal Supreme Court, Federal court of cassation, Public prosecution department, judicial oversight commission and other federal courts that are regulated in accordance with the law which has mixed legal system of civil and Islamic law.
Political parties. Political parties in Iraq are commonly grouped by either ideology or ethnic affiliation, however, from the time Iraq become a republic in 1958 until the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, there was only one de facto legal party, the Ba’ath Arab socialist party. The current political parties were registered according to the groups which they were listed under the ballot of the 2005 Iraq national assembly election. The following are some of the political parties and their leaders:
1. Dawa party by Prime Minister Nouri Al-Maliki
2. Patriotic Union of Kurdistan or PUK by President Jalal Talabani
3. Renewal list by vice president Tariq al-Hashimi
4. Iraqi national accord by Ayad Allawi, former Interim Government prime minister
5Kurdistan Democratic Party by Kurdistan Regional Government President Masud Barazani
6. Future National Gathering by Finance Minister Rafi al-Asawi
7. National Reform Trend by former Prime Minister Ibrahim al- Jafari
8. Iraqi Covenant Gathering by Ahmad Abd al Ghafur al Sammarai
9. Iraqi Islamic Party by Usama al-Tikriti
Human Rights in Iraq: Human rights in Iraq are guaranteed by the constitution; however their application is one of the poorest in the World. In pre-independence British occupational forces in the 1920s used mustard gas, delayed action bombings among other mechanisms to suppress Iraqi resistance to British rule. This resulted in numerous civilian casualties. After the creation of the independent Kingdom in 1932, the monarch sought to maintain the status quo but also allowed elections and minimal forms of democratic expression. In 1950-51, laws were amended which deprived Jews of their nationality and their property in Iraq. During that period over 120000 Jews fled Iraq.
After the 1958 revolution, Iraq’s ruling establishment created a state devoid of political compromise; its leaders liquidated those holding opposing views, confisticated their property without notice, trumped up charges against its enemies and fought battles with imaginary domestic foes. Secret police, torture, murders, rape, abductions, deportations, forced disappearances and assassinations are some of the methods Saddam Hussein used to maintain control. Full political participation was restricted only to members of Ba’ath Party who comprised only 8% of the population. Iraqi citizens were not allowed to assemble unless it was to express support for the government. The government controlled the establishment of political parties and monitored their activities.
In 1994, after the Gulf war, Saddam’s regime introduced severe penalties including amputation and branding for the crime of theft and the death penalty for military desertion. However, family members of high officials in government plus those of Saddam’s family were immune from such punishments. After the 2003 invasion, several mass graves were uncovered containing several thousands of bodies and more bodies are being uncovered up to this very day. Torture centers were also discovered scattered all over the country. Executions performed during this regime have been approximated at over 600,000.
International law organization participation: according to C.I.A world fact book Iraq is a non party state to the international criminal court that is it has no submitted to an international court of justice jurisdiction declaration.
International organization participation. To mention but a few Iraq is a member of the following international organizations; International Monitory Fund, International labor organization, Oil producing and exporting countries, World health organization, Food and agriculture organizational, Interpol among others.
IRAQI ARMY
Iraqi military branches: The following are the Iraqi military branches
1. Counterterrorism Service Forces which consists of Counterterrorism Command and Iraqi Special Operation Forces(ISOF)
2. Iraqi Army which includes Army Aviation Directorate, former National Guard Iraqi Intervention Forces and Strategic Infrastructure Battalions.
3. Iraqi Navy (former Iraqi Coastal Defense Force includes Iraq Marine Force
4. Iraqi Air Force( Al-Quwwat al-Jawwiya al-Iraqiya)

CONCLUSION
Today, Iraq is in a state of sectarian civil war. Small tribal groups as well as militia engage in bombings in civilian areas and in assassinations of high profile governmental figures as well as foreign troops and diplomats. As a result an approximate of 2 million Iraqis have fled to Syria, Jordan and Egypt since the violence reached its peak in 2007. The legal status of freedom of speech and freedom of press is also unclear. Both freedoms are expressed in the constitution but with exemptions for ‘Islamic morality’ and ‘national security’

REFERENCES:
1. Heather Deegan (1993), THE MIDDLE EAST PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY, Open University press Buckingham PHILADELPHIA.
2 .WEBSITE ARTICLES http//www.cia.gov/library/puclications/the-world-factbook/geos/12.html. http//www.en.wikipedia.org/Iraqi-portal