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Failures
The following paper will examine four types of failures that may occur in a distributed system. Also discussed is how these failures relate to a centralized system. Lastly, two of the four failures common to both a distributed and a centralized system will be isolated and fixed.
A distributed operating system gives the appearance of a single system; however in all actuality it is a collection of computers that are connected to a network. This collection of computers, or distributed operating system, share resources and therefore encounters problematic failures as a result (Stallings, 2012).
Failures experienced by distributed operating systems include communication faults, machine failures or fail-stop, storage-device crashes and decays of storage media, and network failures (Ghosh & Mathur, 2011).

Communication faults
In order to detect communication faults a time-out scheme can be used. When a communication, or message, is sent out it specifies a time interval during specifying the length of time it will wait for an acknowledgement message from the sender. If the sender received the acknowledgement message within the specified timeframe, then all is well and good. However, if the message is outside of that timeframe then we know that we are experiencing a communication fault and a time-out is occurring.
In this case, the sender can send a message to the receiver asking ‘are you up?’. If no response is acknowledged or sent back, then it is likely a failure has occurred in the communication path, this is also known as a handshaking method (Silberschatz, Galvin, & Gagne, 2009).
Once a communication failure is indicated, a reconfiguration must take place to restore a normal mode of operation. In this step, information is broadcast to every site in the distributed system to update routing tables and so that other system can be notified and instructed to no longer attempt to use the services of the failed site. In order to fix this problem, multiple communication paths and network devices, such as routers or switches, are needed to alleviate the communication failure (Silberschatz, Galvin, & Gagne, 2009).

Machine failure or fail-stops
Machine failure or fail-stops happen when an output or behavior is inconsistent with what is expected to happen. This behavior can be arbitrary or malicious and is noticeable to users when they experience a computer freeze. During this process a component stops working. Detection of this failure is incredibly difficult to detect since it is not shown in the runtime and is only apparent when a timeout is experienced by the user. There are many types of fail-stops, but the root reason is because the processor fails (Cristea, 2010).

Storage-device Crashes
A storage device crash is critical because it can cause the loss of data, applications, and in the worst case scenario the operating system of the computer (Stallings, 2012). This failure occurs when a hardware or software fails. Storage units can be protected in several ways.
One way to protect a storage device is through redundancy. Using redundant hardware components help protect the storage device in the event of a failure by the components working together in such a way as to take over, work with, and help each other in the event one or more of the disks fail.
RAID systems often ensure uninterrupted access to data in cases of disk failure. Recommendations include continually backing up data for additional protection against storage medium failure (Troppens, U., Erkens, R., Mueller-Friedt, W., Mueller-Friedt, Wolafka, and Haustein, 2009) .

Network Failures
Networks are widely used today in offices around the world. Networks connect processors and memory modules in a shared-memory multiprocessor and perform read/write operations in a centralized system. Networks work in a distributed system by connecting a number of processors which allows the processors to communicate through messages while executing parts of a common application. Processors and memories are connected through links and switches, which allows components to communicate with other components in the absence of a separate link connecting them (Koren & Krishna, 2007).

Fixing Network Failures
According to Koren & Krishna, “routing algorithms can be either centralized or distributed. Centralized routing involves having a central controller in the network, which is aware of the current network state and lays out for each message the path it must take” (Fault-tolerant Networks, chpt. 4).
In distributed network systems, no central controller exists; instead the message is passed from node to node, with each node making the decision on which node to send the message to next. Implementing fault tolerance in centralize routing is used by graph-theoretic algorithms that determine one or more paths that exist from the source of the message to the destination of the message (Koren & Krishna, 2007).
In distributed network systems, a hypercube network can tolerate link failures therefore modifying the routing algorithm can successfully route messages to the hypercube that contain faulty nodes or links. Listing the dimensions along the path that the message travels and then passed through them one by one is the first step in the process of isolation. As the edges are passed through, they can be crossed off the list.
When the node receives a message, the algorithm will check if it arrived at the intended destination. If so, then it accepts the message and the problem is fixed. However, if it arrives at an unintended destination, the algorithm checks to see if the message can be forwarded so that it is one step closer to its final destination. If the message cannot be forwarded then a detour is taken along the message path (Koren & Krishna, 2007).
The basic principle of this solution is to see if there is a link that the message has not yet passed through. If there is such a link, then it is sent along that link, because any link moving the message towards its destination is good. If there is not such a link, then the message is sent back to the node which was the original recipient of the message and we now know that the hypercube is disconnected and there is no path from the source to the destination. This strategy is called a depth-first search strategy for graphs and has been shown to be effective in finding a path if one exists (Koren & Krishna, 2007).

Fixing Storage Medium Failures
Storage medium failures can be treated by primary backups. This method uses a primary server and a secondary server. The primary server is actively running processes and providing services. The secondary service is used strictly as a backup server in the event of a storage medium fault.
When a storage medium fault occurs, the backup server then becomes the primary server to continue uninterrupted service. This is a simple fix, but still serves the needed purpose and to the advantage of the operating system, the running applications are unaware that the switch has taken place (Troppens, U., Erkens, R., Mueller-Friedt, W., Mueller-Friedt, Wolafka, and Haustein, 2009).

Conclusion
In conclusion, fault tolerance is in a computer system, whether centralized or distributed, is an important because it affects two primary issues: data integrity and high availability. Data integrity is important because it conveys whether or not a system is protecting its configuration and data from becoming corrupted. High availability is important because it refers to whether or not the computer system can continue to process and save data despite the failure (Stallings, 2012).

Reference Page

Cristea , Valentin (2010). Large-Scale Distributed Computing and Applications: Models and Trends. : IGI Global.
Ghosh, S., & Mathur, A. P. (2011). On Errors and Failures in Distributed Systems Built to CORBA and COM Standards . W. Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University.
Koren, K & Krishna, C.M. (2007). Fault Tolerant Systems: Elsevier, Inc.
Stallings, W. (2012). Operating systems: Internals and design principles (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Prentice Hall.
Silberschatz, A., Galvin, P. B., & Gagne, G. (2009). Operating system concepts: Update (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.
Troppens, U., Erkens, R., Mueller-Friedt, W., Mueller-Friedt, Wolafka, and Haustein (2009). Storage Networks Explained : John Wiley & Sons (UK) .

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