...So how are we exposed to chemicals? I'm going to talk a little bit of that now. In here, in this picture, I want to show you kind of a classical framework, or exposure pathway schematic it's called, of how we might be exposed to chemical contaminants in our environment. And here's a classic case. So imagine, that's your house there on the left. And these days it might not necessarily be a leaking drum of chemical waste, but perhaps it's something like, an oil well, a fracking location, where there's the use of chemicals as lubricants in the fracking operations, or, in fact, some of the byproducts of oil drilling. Getting into the ground water. So here in this picture it tries to show the big king of cycle of how things might leak into the environment, and leach through the soil, into the ground water, be carried through the groundwater and perhaps then ingested, either by somebody who in this case has a well. Or by a population downstream, who may drink from a river or a stream. But if you can kind of follow this, imagine a chemical, which is synthesized, gets delivered to the environment in some way. All right. May travel through the air, as a vapor or a mist, settle down into the soil, and down through the soil into the water. Where it may also be picked up in the water table, not just as a drinking water contaminant, but it might be picked up by wildlife. So, contamination that is in the water supplies, or the waterways, might be...
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...A Cultural History Of Modern Science In China. Benjamin A. Elman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006. Pp xiii. 336. Benjamin Elman’s book is a complex history of interactions between the European West and Imperial China involving the transmission of scientific, medical, and technological knowledge over a period of roughly three-hundred years, lasting through the Qing dynasty. Previous to the sixteenth century, China was ripe with science and technological innovation; however, the history of modern science has been viewed with a Eurocentric account, consequently dismissing and undervaluing China’s role in modern science’s development. Elman explains this phenomenon throughout his book as the “failure narrative”; why did China not develop modern science and technology at the rate of its Western counterparts? Elman believes that cultural and historical factors resulted more often than not in an inconsistent and turbulent transmission of scientific, medical, and technological information from the West to China, resulting in a miscommunication of fundamental theories from both sides. Elman’s book focuses on two groups, Jesuit advisers and Protestant missionaries, whom he recognizes as the primary transmitters of modern scientific knowledge from Europe to China prior to the start of the twentieth century. In the early seventeenth century, Jesuits made their way to China and collaborated with literati and the imperial court with their knowledge of astronomy and cartography...
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...Part 1 -- The History of China Before we discuss individual technological developments, you should read the following three essays that will give you a historic context for these developments. Concise Political History of China, an online article by Paul Halsall compiled from Compton's Living Encyclopedia on America Online, http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/chinhist.html Chinese Periodization in Light of Economic Developments by Paul Halsall, http://www.mastep.sjsu.edu/history_of_tech/chinese_chronology.htm China, Technology and Change, an article by Lynda Shaffer, from the World History Bulletin, Fall/Winter, 1986/87, http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/shaffer.html China's Gifts to the West by Professor Derk Bodde, for the Committee on Asiatic Studies in American Education Reprinted with permission in China: A Teaching Workbook, Asia for Educators, Columbia University, http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_gifts.htm Part 2 - Science and Technology in China Science in China has a long history and developed quite independently of Western science. Needham (1993) has researched widely on the development of science and technologies in China, the effect of culture, and the transference of these principles, unacknowledged, to the West. The Chinese contribution to Western science is particularly interesting because it serves...
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...Raj Maheshwari BIO 11 Lab Professor Lauren Larin Queens College Spring 2016 Plato to Darwin to DNA – A Brief History Dr. Esther I. Muehlbauer This book has been molded to be a breakdown of how various fields in science have progressed over centuries as mankind has advanced. The book starts off introducing the idea that the telling of natural history has changed numerous times as humans have evolved. We also learn to agree that our knowledge has been shaped by the tools available and the perceptions of its users. In the earliest stages of life, Muehlbauer states “…observers of the natural world had only their senses to work with, and were limited to visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory descriptions perceived by the unaided human body” (pg. 1, Muehlbauer). Something as simple as the “scientific process”, which is similar to the scientific method we learned in our first week of lecture, is proof of how we have outgrown earlier and more primitive attempts to differentiate between the true story. Humankind has progressed from an era in which religion used to be the ultimate answer to all of mankind’s questions. The skies would rumble when God was mad and crops would go bad due to curses by a higher power. The fight for knowledge through science has helped us as a species progress through this uphill battle to debunk the primitive explanations as to why the world exists in the way it does. From the invention of the wheel to the proof of evolution, we have come a long...
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...History of Women in Science Women have continually played a part in scientific endeavor, even prior to invention of the term ‘scientist’. Nevertheless, in Western culture, science and femininity lacked unity and the masculine painting of science revealed not only that more males did science, but that science itself was seen as an integrally masculine venture. The notion that mathematics and science were unsuitable or ‘hard’ for women, and even ‘at odds’ with real femininity, can be trailed back to the beginning of modern science and the commencement of the Royal Society in the seventeenth century. Then ‘femininity’ became the exact opposite of the new, masculine, experimental science of Newton and his colleagues who needed to break from the passive, reflective analytical style of outdated ‘natural philosophy’, the former word for science. (Schiebinger, 1996). This divide that detached women from the new experimental science, was made a lot wider by the Nature’s tradition being embodied in female form only. The masculine scientists made ‘mother nature’ their goal of research, and branded her as a female muse who could trick them, but if trained would also permit them to ‘enter her secrets’. This entire trap cast femininity as the inactive, topic of investigation and the male as the virile, enthusiastic investigator; a dualism that just increased the difference between science and femininity (Jordanova, 1991). Regardless of this, there existed women scientists— botanists, mathematicians...
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...Religion and Science: The relationship between science and religion up until the 6th century were one in the same. Philosophers believed that natural occurrences were due to a divine power. Earthquakes and thunderstorms were merely upset gods showing their wrath. Individuals sought to learn the language of the gods to comprehend these phenomena. After the 6th century, new ideas formed that excluded the gods. These philosophers did not personify nature. They believed the world to be orderly and predictable. This brought on a renaissance of thought. By examining everything up to this point in history, the distinction between science and religion became clear. This rift spawned modern thought and science as we know it. Primitive science originated from man’s desire to speak to the gods and learn about natural phenomena in the world. Almost all of the ancient civilizations (Egyptians, Babylonians, etc.) had myths and beliefs about the origin of the human race and the formation of major topographical features. Up until about the 6th century, people believed in demon possessions, ghosts, and a variety of other invisible ailment-causing entities. They also believed that magic rituals allowed one to control these anomalies. Such individuals were generally held in esteem amongst the community. The reason why such myths were taken as fact for so long is attributed to the notion of “oral tradition.” Oral tradition was a method of keeping culture alive before there was a written record...
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...vA Very Brief History of Computer Science Written by Jeffrey Shallit for CS 134 at the University of Waterloo in the summer of 1995. This little web page was hastily stitched together in a few days. Perhaps eventually I will get around to doing a really good job. Suggestions are always welcome. A translation of this web page into French has been prepared by Anne Dicky at the University of Bordeaux. Before 1900 People have been using mechanical devices to aid calculation for thousands of years. For example, the abacus probably existed in Babylonia (present-day Iraq) about 3000 B.C.E. The ancient Greeks developed some very sophisticated analog computers. In 1901, an ancient Greek shipwreck was discovered off the island of Antikythera. Inside was a salt-encrusted device (now called the Antikythera mechanism) that consisted of rusted metal gears and pointers. When this c. 80 B.C.E. device was reconstructed, it produced a mechanism for predicting the motions of the stars and planets. (More Antikythera info here.) John Napier (1550-1617), the Scottish inventor of logarithms, invented Napier's rods (sometimes called "Napier's bones") c. 1610 to simplify the task of multiplication. In 1641 the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) built a mechanical adding machine. Similar work was done by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Leibniz also advocated use of the binary system for doing calculations. Recently it was discovered that Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635)...
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...Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory While the history of nursing can be traced back to the early first and second centuries, or even earlier, the study of nursing research and theories is a 20th and 21st century phenomena. The act of nursing is rooted in the Greco-Roman tradition of humanista, which core values are respect for the dignity of person, and the right to be free of pain and suffering; and the Judaic – Christian tradition of Caritas, with core values of solidarity with the sick, hungry, homeless, and hopeless (Evers, 2003). Coming from this line of thought it is not surprising that Florence Nightingale as a professed Christian chose to care and advocate for the sick and poor. The study and history of professional nursing science, research, and theories although a late 20th and 21st century phenomena, is said to begin with Florence Nightingale. Her use of mathematical and statistical data to show the relevance of her findings; that environmental factors can, and do influence patient’s rate of recovery was the beginning of nursing research and science as it is known today. One could almost imply that Nightingale knew that outcome measures needed to be “relevant, and address both the constant and variable components in order to determine effectiveness of an outcome” (Blackwood, 2006). Over the past centuries, Nursing as an independent science has emerged as a rich culture of theoretical perspectives and frame-works that have impacted the profession...
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...The history of Nursing Science Theresa Nwaoha-Ezekwo NUR/13 October 25, 2012 Pam Monroe Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory While the history of nursing can be traced back to the early first and second centuries, or even earlier, the study of nursing research and theories is a 20th and 21st century phenomena. The act of nursing is rooted in the Greco-Roman tradition of humanista, which core values are respect for the dignity of person, and the right to be free of pain and suffering; and the Judaic – Christian tradition of Caritas, with core values of solidarity with the sick, hungry, homeless, and hopeless (Evers, 2003). Coming from this line of thought it is not surprising that Florence Nightingale as a professed Christian chose to care and advocate for the sick and poor. The study and history of professional nursing science, research, and theories although a late 20th and 21st century phenomena, is said to begin with Florence Nightingale. Her use of mathematical and statistical data to show the relevance of her findings; that environmental factors can, and do influence patient’s rate of recovery was the beginning of nursing research and science as it is known today. One could almost imply that Nightingale knew that outcome measures needed to be “relevant, and address both the constant and variable components in order to determine effectiveness of an outcome” (Blackwood, 2006). Over the past centuries, Nursing as an independent science has emerged...
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...Nine Billion Names of God”. This is a science fictive short story where we meet a group of lamas who wants to write the nine billion names of God. Atypically, the lamas will not use the ‘normal’ alphabet; but their own alphabet where they have invented and written in their holy books. In over three centuries they have been typing these names down, and it would take another fifteen thousand years for them to complete the chore. Therefore, they purchase a special computer, Mark V, from a company, which can calculate and write all the letters down. Compared to the fifteen thousand years the computer will do the job in a hundred days. Later on we are following two engineers named George and Chuck. They have been hired to complete the project. However, one day Sam Jaffe tells Chuck the real purpose of this task. The real purpose is to find all the names and when that is been done, God’s intention with the mankind will be achieved and the universe will cease to exist. Of course, the scientists think that it is pure nonsense and they begin to plan their home travel at the same time, as the computer would be done printing out the names. They are afraid of the monks’ reactions when their task will fail, because of course it will fail. Unfortunately, on their way to the plane, they look up and suddenly without a fuss, the stars are going out. It is clear that the dialogue in the start is a very special one. To me, I think it is the very classic “science vs. religion” when the two men are...
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...Today’s generation use these formulas as theories and tries to develop them to solve problems. Observation, experiment and invention existed as early as middle ages but in the mid-15th century the belief about the physical universe was questioned. Curiosity among talented people around the world intensified. This ultimately led to development of science. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres. His model of the Universe was alternative to Claudius Ptolemy’s geocentric system which was widely accepted since ancient times. It is believed that Copernicus’s theory of Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres lit the torch in scientific revolution. In 1576, Tycho Brahe set up Uranilborgh observatory. It was a huge step in astronomy. The mystery of the physical universe had begun to reveal. Soon after, Johannes Kepler in 1609 followed up with the Astronomia Nova which included his decade long research of the motion of mars. Galileo Galilei published Starry Messenger in 1610 which was a method of observing our galaxy with a telescope. In 1610, Francis Bacon published introduced the new instruments of science. Finally, Sir Isaac Newton, a...
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...History of Computer Science Name: Kamyll Dawn Cocon Course, Yr. & Sec.: BSMT 1-D REACTION PAPER The topic of the video which is about the history of computer was kind of interesting since it high lightened our mind about where the computer had really came from. Not only have that, it also made us understand how the computers of today became very wonderful and powerful. Before, computers only existed in the imagination of humans and were believed that creating such monstrous device was impossible. It was a huge leap in the field of computer during the 19th century when Charles Babbage developed the 1st modern computer called the difference machine. The most advantageous feature of this machine is that it reflected Babbage’s attitude of being a perfectionist. Although his work was not finished, the detailed text that was written by Ada was significant in modifying his versions and for documentary purposes of his work. The rapid increase of the American population, on the other hand, triggered the development of a machine that will help the census tabulate such population very fast. Hermin Horrith’s occupation was very helpful to the development of this machine since he used business to gain money to revise his machine which had later evolved into the international business machine. Although war causes devastation to the environment as well as the people involved, it also had contributed to the development of computers, which is the birth of ENIAC, the first large-scale...
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...Marilynne Robinsons “Freedom of thought” essay tackles modern science along with sacredness of religion. Robinson shatters the ideas that science and religion struggle for the same piece of turf. She writes about early scientific endeavors and the modern tendency to see religion as a universal part of human nature that is part of our rational thoughts. Robinson writes “Be that as it may, the effect of this idea, which is very broadly assumed to be true, is again to reinforce the notion that science and religion are struggling for possession of a single piece of turf, and science holds the high ground and gets to choose the weapons”. She opposes these statements and believes religion and science are not in conflict with each other but it is merely an assumption made by the modern society that is America. The bold statement stiffens the notion that religion and science are involved in a cold war environment. Today many are intrigued by the idea of science and how the world came to existence and with more discoveries about the world the more people are going to choose a side whether that is fact (science) or fiction (religion). Robinson can try to break the idea of religion vs. science but in the modern world its either you’re an atheist or u pick a religion. Think about the times when science books were being burned by Christians on account of the books going against God and made man seem as if he found how life was truly created. While on the opposing side scientists...
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...INTRODUCTION Is science a religion? This topic has been debated by many creationists and scientists alike. The philosophy of science makes no claims to knowledge about the supernatural or metaphysical and, by not so doing, is left with an enterprise that although hugely successful is also permanently on trial (Manne, 2010). The only thing scientists can agree upon is the empirical nature of science, but the steps from observations to theory are not without philosophical problems. DISCUSSION Thomas Kuhn thinks that scientific paradigms are essentially pictures of the world that are consistent with observations and logically coherent. But such pictures are necessarily always incomplete, at least until such time as we know everything, and our minds seem to struggle to accept this; it seems like there is an aesthetic compulsion to create harmonious images, even if that means filling in the spaces with metaphysical constructs. Andrew Brown states that the dictionary is wrong; science can be a religion too. He explains that if you strictly use the dictionary definition of science then it cannot be considered a religion, but if you look at science objectively you can see how it could be considered one. He makes a strong argument that religion has too many definitions for science to not be considered one. Richard Dawkins believes the opposite. He states that science is based upon verifiable evidence. Religious faith not only lacks evidence, its independence from evidence is its main...
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...Computer science is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. It is the systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical procedures (or algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to information, whether such information is encoded as bits in a computer memory or transcribed in genes and protein structures in a biological cell.[1] A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.[2] Its subfields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory (which explores the fundamental properties of Computational and intractable problems), are highly abstract, while fields such as computer graphics emphasize real-world visual applications. Still other fields focus on the challenges in implementing computation. For example, programming language theory considers various approaches to the description of computation, whilst the study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use of programming language and complex systems. Human-computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for...
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