GS text for

a. an answer to an examination question,
b. an opening paragraph of an assignment, or
c. a background (or scene-setting) paragraph to an analysis or discussion

begins with one of the following

a. a short or extended definition,
b. a contrastive or comparative definition, or
c. a generalization or purpose statement

General statement – More specific detail – Specific detail – Broader statement

“Writing passage begins with a definition; definitions are a common way of getting started.
(unfamiliar reader – used to clarify terms / familiar reader – expected you to demonstrate your understanding of complex concepts)

Sentence Definition; To what class does (Definition) belong? How is it different / would you define? (Compare / Cause)

A term is (a) class wh-word/that specific detail.

Indefinite article / before both the term and class
Ex) Annealing is a metalworking process / A star is a celestial body

A disinfectant is an/the agent capable of destroying disease causing microorganisms.
An; it does not refer to a particular representative.
The; indentifies or describes the term, some previous mention of other agents.

The distinguishing information in the restrictive relative clause
- one involves a simple deletion / the other involves a change in word form or an entire word.

1) Enamel, in dentistry, is a hard, white inorganic material (that is) on the crown of a tooth. : the verb to be
2) A collagen is a white, inelastic protein (that is) formed and maintained by fibroblasts. : a passive verb + inf.
3) A robot is a multi-programmable device (which is) capable of performing the work of a human. : an adjective

1) A parliament is a national governing body (which has – with) the highest level of legislative power within a state: the relative pronoun and have > with
2) Pollution is a form of contamination (that often results > often resulting) from human activity. : active state verb changed to the –ing form
3) It is important to note that a relative clause containing a modal auxiliary cannot be reduced.
4) A foundations is a base on which a structure can be built. (preposition + relative pronoun – cannot be reduced)
5) Collective bargaining is a process whereby (of which, through which) employers agree to discuss work-related issues with employee representatives.
6) A microscope is an instrument > an object; care should be taken to find the precise word or phrase

A. a solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight into electric energy. : academic English.
B. a solar cell is something(too broad and informal) that changes sunlight into electricity.(may be considered wrong) : spoken English, e-mail

1) Avoid using any form of your term in the definition / Using the term itself in the definition can result in a circular definition and is likely to note as such by your audience.
: Erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth is degraded by the effects of the atmosphere, weather and human activity.
2) Avoid using when and where in definition – less appropriate for a formal definition.
Pollution is when the environment becomes contaminated as a result of human society >
Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting from human activity.

Extended Definitions

A general / one-sentence definition / more specific (additional details)

1) An analysis of components
A microscope is an optical instrument with which the apparent size of an object can be enhanced. A simple microscope consists of a double convex lens and a magnifying glass. A compound microscope, on the other hand, will contain more than one of each of these lenses, which are situated at the ends of a cylinder.
2) Examples
Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting from human activity. Some common forms of pollution are wastes from the burning of fossil fuels and sewage running into rivers. Even litter and excessive noise can be considered forms of pollution because of the impact they can have on the environment.
3) A sense of historical change and development
Perspective is a technique in art that is used to represent three-dimensional objects and depth relationships on a flat surface. Modern linear perspective (which involves making objects seem smaller the more distant they are from the observer) was probably first used in the 1400s by the artist Masaccio and the architects Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti in Florence, Italy. Before this time, artists paid little attention to realistic perspective. In recent decades, many modern artists have returned to the practices of early artists and have abandoned realistic perspective.
4) A knowledge of applications
An acrylic plastic is a polymer which can take a high polish, is clear and transparent, and can be shaped while hot. Because of these and other characteristics, acrylic plastic is used in situations where glass is not suitable or desirable, for instance, in certain types of windshields.
5) Operating principles = A process analysis
6) Causes and effects
7) An awareness of problems with or exceptions to the general definition
Lateralization is a developmental process during which the two sides of the brain become specialized for different functions. As a child develops, the two sides of the brain become asymmetric in that each side controls different abilities. Language, for instance, is controlled by the left side of the brain, and certain types of pattern recognition by the right. However, there is some disagreement as to when this specialization is complete. Some researchers believe the process is not complete until puberty, while others maintain that the brain is lateralized by age five.
8) Future prediction
A compact disc (CD) is an optical storage medium onto which information has been recorded digitally. In a CD recording of sound, sound waves are converted into digital numbers and inscribed on the disc. The digital data on the disc is read by a laser beam, thus eliminating any form of mechanical friction that could distort sound quality. CDs can also be used to store images as well as information. As optical data storage techniques improve, CD technology will become more widespread and may someday entirely replace magnetic storage.

Contrastive Definitions
Ex) Formal and informal English

The former deals with (definition), while the latter is concerned with (definition)

Comparative Definitions
1. To present a historical account of how a concept has changed over time.
2. To present an overview of how various experts today view a concept differently

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Generalisations

Problem / Process / Solution
- argumentative and evaluative

Mid-position Adverbs – are now published / have recently been produced / will be somewhat underrepresented

1. Problem statements
2. Procedures and Processes
- the problem-solution allows the author to raise a question about the current state of knowledge and to offer a possible or part answer.
: Verbs and Agents in the Solution
- technical solutions always follow process descriptions.

1) Passive Voice; processing descriptions
Specimen – analyzed in the lab = Analyze the specimen
Results – recorded = record the results
Report from – completed and sent to physician = complete a report form and send it to the physician

The Analysis stage – the results stage – the reporting stage
By – a human agent: uncommon; except for the event of history
By – process: The chances of finding oil are often estimated by seismic survey.

Teaching can be improved by in-service training. (further information)
> Teaching can be improved by asking teachers to attend a range of short courses throughout much of their careers.

The sample is cleaned. The sample is dried. It is weighed.<
First, the sample is cleaned, dried, and weighed. The sample is cleaned, dried, and then weighed.

2) Changed of State Verbs (Non human-action verbs)
Most metals expand and contract with variations in temperature.
The beam fractures when the load on it becomes too great.
When demand increases, prices are likely to rise.

3) Causes and Effects
Increases in demand usually lead to price increases.

4) –ing Clauses of Result
When the cold air from the Pacific Ocean's Humboldt current mixes with the warm coastal air, a thick, wet fog, called camanchaca by the Andes Indians, forms along with clouds.>
The cold air from the Pacific Ocean’s Humboldt current mixes with the warm coastal air, resulting in the formation of clouds and a thick, wet fog, called camachaca by the Andes Indians.

As a result and therefore > by –ing clauses of result.

The magma flows into the pores of the rocks; as a result, the rocks rupture.>
The magma flows into the pores of the rocks, thereby(thus) causing them to rupture.

A current is sent through the material. As a result, the electrons are polarized.
A current is sent through the material, polarizing the electrons.

Subordinate clause (optional), Main clause (thus/thereby) – ing clause

Process: price rise, thus leading to a drop in demand.
Problem: price rise, thus increasing the chance of hyperinflation.
Solution: price rise, thus increasing earnings that can then be reinvested in the enterprise.

5) Indirect Questions < Academic writing (Direct questions is ok, but should limit your use)
It is unclear what the price of oil will be next year.

To explain purpose: problematize issues, cases, phenomena, statements,
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To introduce a problem; an adversative sentence connector – however, nonetheless, even so, despite

Data commentary

Purpose
• Highlight the results.
• Assess standard theory, common beliefs, or general practice in the light of the given data.
• Compare and evaluate different data sets.
• Assess the reliability of the data in terms of the methodology that produced it.
• Discuss the implications of the data.

Structure of Data Commentary

1) Location elements and/or summary statements
2) highlighting statements
3) discussions of implications, problems, exceptions, etc.

Ex) Table 5 shows the most common modes of infection for U.S. businesses. [Location + indicative summary] As can be seen,[Linking as clause] in the majority of cases, the sources of viral infection can be detected, with disks being brought to the workplace from home being by far the most significant. [Highlight 1] However, it is alarming to note that the source of nearly 30% of viral infections cannot be determined.[Highlight 2] While it may be possible to eliminate home-to-workplace infection by requiring computer users to antiviral software on diskettes brought from home, businesses are still vulnerable to major data loss, especially from unidentifiable sources of infection. [Implications]

Location Elements and Summaries

Indicative Summary
Table 5 shows the most common modes of infection for U.S. businesses
The most common modes of infection are shown in table 5. (Passives)
= starting a data commentary

1. Note the consistent use of the present tense
2. In English the active forms are as appropriate as the passive versions.

Informative Summary
Figure 4.2 suggests that the experimental results confirm the hypothesis.

Indicative abstracts merely indicate what kind of research has been done.
Informative abstracts additionally give the main results.
Verb in indicative and informative summaries (show) (provide / suggest)

Linking as-clauses

As can be seen in figure 8, Infant mortality is still high in urban areas.

A. As it has been proved, the theory may have practical importance. (a casual relationship)
B. As has been proved, the theory may have practical importance. (announce or confirm)

Not to use subjects in passive linking as-clauses.
Using prepositions.

As shown in table 3,
As can be seen from the data in table 1,
As shown by the data in table 1,
As described on page 24,

Highlighting Statements (Important)

They are an opportunity for you to demonstrate:
• that you can spot trends or regularities in the data,
• that you can separate more important findings from less important ones, and
• that you can make claims of appropriate strength. additionally give the main results.

do not
• simply repeat all the details in words,
• attempt to cover all the information, or
• claim more than is reasonable or defensible.

Qualifications and Strength of Claim
Requirement; be cautious about the data, have the linguistic resources to express this caution

Probability
1) Modal auxiliary; A reduced speed limit will/may/might/could result in fewer highway injuries.
2) It is (almost) certain that / It is (very) probable that / It is (highly) likely that / It is possible that / It is (very) unlikely that /
It is highly improbable that / a reduced speed limit will result in fewer injuries.
3) There is a strong / good / definite / slight / remote possibility that /

Distance (Another way of removing yourself from a strong and unjustified claim)
Consumers have less confidence in the economy today than 10 years ago.
Consumers seem to have / appear to have less confidence in the economy.
It would seem / appear that consumers have less confidence in the economy.

To distance yourself from the data by showing in some way that it is ‘soft’
On the limited data available, / In the view of some experts, / According to this preliminary study, /
Based on informal observations made by highway patrol officers, a lower speed limit may reduce highway fatalities.

Generalization (tend to v / to qualify the subject / to add exceptions)
Consumers tend to have less confidence in the economy
Many / A majority of / In most parts of the country, / in most income bracket, / consumers have less confidence in the economy.
With the exception of / Apart from / Except for / a few oil-rich states, national economies in Africa are not likely to improve greatly over the next decade.

Weaker Verbs (Claims can be reduced in strength by choosing a weaker verb)

Deregulation caused the banking crisis. (Stronger)
Deregulation contributed to the banking crisis (Weaker)

<<Combined Qualifications

The use of seat belts prevents physical injuries in car accidents. (Big Claim)
According to simulation studies (adding distance), in some circumstances (weakening the generalization) the use of seat belts may (adding probability) reduce (weaker verb) certain types of (weakening the generalization) physical injuries in car accidents.
“Confidently uncertain”

Organization
Qualifying Comparisons

Fifty-six percent of girls reported restrictions on going out late at night as opposed to 35% of boys. (Not a good strategy)
More girls reported restrictions on going out late at night than did boys.
Fewer boys reported restrictions on going out late at night …
Not as many boys reported restrictions on going out late at night … (Vagueness; more or fewer)

Twenty-one percent more girls reported restrictions on going out late at night.

Useful Alternatives
A. Almost exactly twice as many boys reported … almost exactly twice as many boys reported
B. A marginally smaller percentage of girls reported … a marginally smaller percentage of girls reported
C. Slightly over twice as many boys reported … Slightly over twice as many boys reported
D. Close to three times as many boys reported… Close to three times as many boys reported
E. Boys exceeded girls in the times they reported … by ratio of 2.5 to 1. Boys exceeded girls in the times they reported b

Concluding a Commentary

Explanations and/or implications = usually required
Unexpected results or unsatisfactory data = If necessary – should try to explain why these unexpected or errors occurred.
Possible further research or possible future predictions = If appropriate

Dealing with “Problems” (helpful to discuss imperfect data)
The difference between expected and obtained results may be due to the incorrect calibration of the instruments.
This discrepancy can be attributed to the small sample size.
The anomaly in the observations can probably be accounted for by a defect in the camera.
The lack of statistical significance is probably a consequence of weaknesses in the experimental design.
The difficulty in dating this archaeological site would seem to stem from the limited amount of organic material available.

The errors may be due to incorrect calibration of the instruments.
The errors may be due to the fact that the instruments were incorrectly calibrated.
The errors may be due to the instruments being incorrectly calibrated.
The errors may be due to the instruments were incorrectly calibrated. – Incorrect [-ing clause]
The errors may be due to incorrectly calibrating the instruments. – doubtful [lack of a clear agent]

Dealing with Graphs

Referring to Lines on Graphs
Upward trend / peak / low point / sharp rise / steep fall / rise / leveling off / fell off / remained steady / spike / increase / decline
Minimum / local dip / local minimum / local maximum / spike / maximum / peak / kink / linear increase

Dealing with Chronological Data

Prepositions of Time

From 1982 to 1985 the pass rates rose. / During the first four years, the pass rates rose.
The pass rate fluctuated from 1982 to 1994. / The pass rate fluctuated throughout the period.
The pass rate remained under 50% from 1986 to 1991. / The pass rate remained under 50% until 1991.
The highest pass rate occurred in 1985. / The highest pass rate occurred nine years ago.

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Writing Summaries

Writing an Assignment Summary * [You must first understand the source material you are working with]

1. It should offer a balanced coverage of the original (the earlier parts of the source text)
2. It should present the source material in a neural fashion.
3. It should condense (make it shorter) the source material and be presented in the summary writer’s own words.

Preliminary Step
1. Skim the text, noting in your mind the subheadings. If there are no subheadings, try to divide the text into sections. Consider why you have been assigned the text. Try to determine what type of text you are dealing with. This can help you identify important information.
2. Read the text, highlighting important information or taking notes.
3. In your own words, write down the main points of each section. Try to write a one-sentence summary of each section.
4. Write down the key support points for the main topic, but do not include minor detail.
5. Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate.

The Egyptian landscape has been changing for centuries. One area which has undergone dramatic change over the last 7,000 years is the Nile River basin. One of the most notable aspects of this transformation is the year-round irrigation of land for agricultural purposes, rather than a strict reliance on the annual flood.(This is the topic of the passage) Conversion to continuous irrigation, which began around 1500 and was limited only by the level of technology, led to improved agricultural productivity. This in turn contributed to an increase in the population of the area. (The effect of the change in irrigation patterns is significant)

A preliminary summary of a problem-solution text should contain the key elements: situation, problem, and solution. / logical flow of ideas.

Although it would be beneficial for the world economy to have uniform patent laws, each country has its own laws. Despite widespread variation, patent laws generally fall under one of two principles: the first-to-file and first-to-invent. Most countries have adopted the first-to-file system. However, the United States maintains a first-to-invent system.
A result of countries employing different patent law principles is inconsistency of patent ownership. Patent ownership is not recognized globally. This unclear ownership often has economic consequences, international economic tension has also been increasing as a result of differing policies. Further, failure of the United States to recognize patent ownership in other countries is in violation of the Paris Conventions on Industrial Properties. The conflict surrounding patents has prompted the World Intellectual Properties Organization (WIPO) to lobby for universality in patent laws. UWIPO maintains that the first necessary step involves compelling the United States to reexamine its patent principle, taking into account the reality of a global economy.

- Missing points
1. It is probably a bit too long. The original contains 399 words, and the summary contains 168. It could be condensed further without any loss of meaning.
2. It is written entirely in the words of the original, although no whole sections were borrowed. It is an example of plagiarism. Notice that sentence 1 in the summary is identical to the first highlighted part of the original, sentence 2 is identical to the second highlighted section, and so on.
3. It does not display a high level of understanding of the source passage. While it does show that the writer can pull out important information, it does not convince the reader that the summary writer understands the information and how it is interrelated.

- Improvement
1. paraphrase the original. (A paraphrase is a restatement [in your own words] of the ideas in the original; replacing words in the source with synonyms and changing the grammar)
Although it would be beneficial for the world economy to have uniform patent laws, each country has its own laws.
Every country has unique patent laws, even though the world economy would be improved if they were consistent.
- Sentence by sentence; you will most likely not demonstrate your full understanding of the passage.
- ; resulting summary is not original and would be considered plagiarism.
* Strategy; to carefully consider the elements you consider important, put the original away, and write down what you have understood.

1. Always try to use your own words, except for technical terms.
2. Include enough support and detail so that the presentation is clear.
3. Do not try to paraphrase specialized vocabulary or technical terms.
4. Include nothing more than what is contained in the original. (Do not include your own comments or evaluation.)
5. Make sure the summary reads smoothly. Use enough transition devices and supporting detail. You do not want a collection of sentences that do not flow.

The first sentence in a summary; the source and the main idea

In Anthony Tyson’s article “Mapping Dark Matter with Gravitational Lenses, --------- main idea.
According to Yvonne Boskin in her article “Blue Whale Population May Be Increasing off California.”, -------- main idea.
Young and Song’s 1991 paper on fluoridation discusses -------- main topic
Author Peter Bernstein in his book Capital Ideas states / claims / argues / maintains that -------- main idea
Marcia Barinaga, in her article “Is There a Female Style in Science?” states that -------- main idea

Main idea, topic; be objective – not entirely true, following reporting verbs. Evaluative verbs should also be used in summaries.
Example> allege vs assume

Object Verbs; describe, recommend, propose, theorize, support, examine
Evaluative Verbs; claim, assume, contend

Nominal that-Clauses

Marcia Barinaga in her article "Is There a Female Style in Science?" states that men and women are indeed different.
Marcia Barinaga in her article "Is There a Female Style in Science?" mentions that men and women exhibit differences in the way they pursue science; Mention is used for information that was most likely given without detail or support.

Make a Reference
APA Style (American Psychological Association), MLA Style (Modern Language Association)

a. Goodman (1989) has found a correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops.
b. A correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops has been identified (Goodman, 1989).
c. In his recent study of the Nile River basin, Goodman (1989) established a correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops. Goodman also noticed …

Summary Reminder Phrases

The author goes on to say that … / The article further states that … / (author’s surname here) also states, maintains, argues that … / (author’s surname here) also believes that … / (author’s surname here) concludes that … / In the second half of the paper, (author’s surname here) presents …

A longer summary; mentioning the author three times would be appropriate
Goodman goes on to say … / Suzuki also believes that …
Linking words and phrases may be useful in additional information = additionally, in addition to, also, furthermore, further, moreover

Some notes on Plagiarism

Do not borrow “famous” phrases without at least putting them in quotation marks.
Chance favors the prepared mind > “Chance favors the prepared mind”

1. Copying a paragraph as it is from the source without any acknowledgment.
2. Copying a paragraph making only small changes, such as replacing a few verbs or adjectives with synonyms.
3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using the sentences of the original but leaving one or two out, or by putting one or two sentences in a different order.
4. Composing a paragraph by taking short standard phrases from a number of sources and putting them together with some words of your own.
5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial changes in language and organization, amount of detail, and examples.
6. Quoting a paragraph by placing it in block format with the source cited.

Comparative Summaries

Challenging; to analyze and use information from two or more sources / to infer and make explicit the relationships among your sources / not an objective representation of the original sources
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Writing Critiques (critical assessment – positive, negative, or a mixture of both)
-------- Fair and Reasonable
Reason
1. To try and ensure that students actually do reading assignments
2. To assess the students' understanding
3. To try and develop habits of analytic reading in their students
4. To train graduate students to integrate the assigned reading with other readings they have done, especially by making comparisons
5. To give graduate students a better sense of the scholarly expectations in their chosen field
- Critiques require that students learn to express their evaluative comments within their field’s accepted standards of judgment.
- Different emphases; attention may focus on how “interesting” the arguments are

Requirements for Writing Critiques
- Practicing analytic reading / having experience in writing an opening summary / being familiar with the role and place of qualifications or “hedges” / having a growing sense of your instructor as audience / learning to present yourself in your writing
/ unreal conditionals and evaluative language.

Analytic reading;
Building an organizational map - readers can mentally organize information and follow the author’s development of ideas, an important reader’s purpose for nonfiction.

Unreal conditionals in the past

Therefore, it would have been better if Suzuki had either illustrated this variation, or restricted his discussion to the U.S.
A sentence or two giving the historical background for this would have been helpful.
This article would have been more convincing if the author had related his findings to previous work on the topic.
It would have been better if the authors had given their main findings in the form of a table.
Time frame is closed; No opportunity to revise the text.

Past perfect is used to help establish the time frame.
Past unreal conditionals are common in critiques > being critiqued has already been put into final form [published or turned in]
Present unreal conditionals describe a hypothetical situation in the present.
- Your paper would be stronger if you included some additional information.
Time frame is open; the possibility for revision still exists.

The author should have provided more data about her sample.
Although this is an interesting and important paper, the authors could have given more attentions to the fact that their model of consumer choice is based entirely on U.S data.

Should – a strongly negative comment / could – a less strong / should have – a criticism / could have – more suggestion / might have – a weak suggestion.

Evaluative Language – appropriate use

Success / failure / succeed / fail / successful / unsuccessful / successfully / unsuccessfully

Evaluative Adjectives – one or two evaluative adjectives in your summary.

Unusual / limited / ambitious / modest / small / restricted / important / flawed / useful / significant / innovative / interesting / careful / competent / impressive / elegant / simple / traditional / complex / small scale / exploratory / remarkable / preliminary / unsatisfactory; In this ambitious but flawed study, Jones and Wang …

Evaluative Adjectives across the Disciplines

Humanities; scholarly or original > sound > thin
Social science; perceptive or rigorous > scholarly > anecdotal
Physics; elegant or economical > accurate > sloppy

Writing Critiques

Negative criticism
1. You are expected and encouraged to criticize published work.
2. You are capable of finding points to criticize
3. You are beginning to express your points effectively.

S provides / offers + a small piece of interesting topic / minor research relevant topic / preliminary on an important topic.
However, the study + suffers from a number of limitations / exhibits several weaknesses / can be criticized on several counts / raises as many questions as it answers.

The comment introducing Brief Reports and Summaries
However, at least in its published form, the study apparently suffers from a number of limitations.

Inversions [Common in poetry / it only occurs with emphatic(“particularly”) or comparative (“even more”) expressions]
- strong highlighting device and special emphasis, as when we want to single out one result/fault/problem/virtue.
Not only has the author presented some valuable new information, he has also presented it in a very clear and coherent manner.
In not case do the authors provide any statistical information about their results.
Special Verb Agreement

A total of 678 writing samples was obtained.
A minority of the students were native speakers

Reaction Papers

Scare Quotes – distancing the writer from the descriptor / useful demonstration of your sophistication
Kobayashi’s conclusion about “cultural” preference…
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Constructing a Research Paper 1 – in a strategic manner / positioning

Title
Abstract – Five, Summary Writing
Introduction (I)– Two, (General-specific) / Four, Problem-solution / Six, Critiques
; To provide the rationale for the paper, moving from general discussion of the topic to the particular question or hypothesis being investigated. To attract interest in the topic to readers
Methods(M) – Three, Process descriptions / Four, Highlight statements / Four, Qualifications / Four, Explanations / Six, Literature comparisons
; To describe in various degrees of detail, methodology, materials, and procedures – the narrowest part of the RP.
Results(R)
; The findings are described, accompanied by variable amounts of commentary
Discussion (D) (Specific – General)
; To offer an increasingly generalized account of what has been learned in the study. This is usually done through a series of “points” at least some of which refer back to statements made in the Introduction.
Acknowledgments (some smaller bits of business – title to be discussed)
References

Imperatives in Research Papers
Appendix One; Articles in Academic Writing

1. Countability – countable or uncountable / generic(representative or symbolic) or specific(actual)
1) You cannot tell whether a noun is countable simply looking at it. (Check a dictionary)
2) A noun that is countable in one language may not be countable in another and vice versa.
3) Double nouns (countable, uncountable)
; analysis(in general), an analysis(a particular one); calculation; diamond; iron; science; grain; temperature, pressure, voltage, growth, density, and velocity.
Temperature is expressed in degrees / A temperature of over 120 was recorded.
4) Some nouns that are almost always uncountable in everyday English may have countable uses in technical English
; Rice is a staple food / A rice that can resist certain types of diseases should be introduced to the farmers of the region.
--- highly specialized use of the term that would only be used by experts
--- Purposes of conciseness / It is simply more efficient for experts to talk of a rice rather than a type of rice
5) Some nouns in English are in the process of shifting from uncountable to countable (work, research)
Uncountable
- Names for languages / Names for areas of study / Names for solids; coal, steel, marble,… /
Names for liquids; water, nitric acid, oil, … / Names for gases; oxygen, hydrogen, methane, … /
Names for powders; salt, sugar, sand, ….

2. The Indefinite Article and 0
A(An); Not identical – any single term – being used with the first mention of a singular countable noun
0; being used with the first mention of a plural or an uncountable noun.

3. The Definite Article
- To specify a particular noun, to make clear that reference is being made to a particular singular or plural noun.
1) Second mention (either explicit or implicit)
A very lightweight car was developed, but the vehicle performed poorly in crash tests.
2) Superlatives or ordinals
The last security conference was termed a success
3) Specifiers (such as same, sole, only, chief, principal ,…)
The principal causes of the disaster have yet to be discovered.
4) Shared knowledge or unique reference
The oxygen balance in the atmosphere is maintained by photosynthesis
5) Off-phrases or other forms of post-modification
The behavior of this species varies.
6) Partitive off-phrases with plurals
None of the projects was satisfactory
7) Name of theories, effects, devices, scales, and so on, modified by a proper name used as an adjective
The Doppler effect / not (The) Einstein’s theory and relativity

4. Acronyms and Abbreviations
This devices contains an LED / This computer has a CD-ROM / R&D is a high priorty

Introduction Sections

1. The need to appeal to readership
2. A paper that is designed for the external world (It need to attract an audience)

This study of the writing of 22 first graders and 13 third graders is concerned with how children learn the rules of punctuation.
“Children’s Punctuation: An Analysis of Errors in Period Placement” – The very specific opening

3. Using a metaphor – that of competition as it is used in ecology.
4. Moves in Research Paper Introductions
Move 1 Establishing a research territory;
a. by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way (optional)
b. by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area (obligatory)
Move 2 Establishing a niche
a. by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way (obligatory)
Move 3 Occupying a niche
a. by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research (obligatory)
b. by announcing principal findings (optional)
c. by indicating the structure of the RP. (optional)

The Position of Sentence Connectors in Academic English
C. B. Feak and J. M. Swales
Introduction

Many commentators have noted that sentence connectors (e.g.,however) are an important and useful element in expository and argumentative writing. Frequency studies of their occurrence in academic English extend at least as far back as Huddleston
(1971). ESL writing textbooks have for many years regularly included chapters on sentence connectors (e.g., Herbert, 1965). Most reference grammars deal with their grammatical status, classification, meaning, and use. Some attention has also been given to the position of sentence connectors in clauses and sentences. Quirk and Greenbaum (1973) observe (a) that the normal position is initial; (b) that certain connectors, such as hence and overall, "are restricted, or virtually restricted, to initial position" (p. 248); and (c) that medial positions are rare for most connectors, and final positions even rarer. 7The only attempt known to us to explain differences in position on semantic grounds is an unpublished paper by Salera (1976) discussed in Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1983). The Salera paper deals only with adversatives like however and suggests that initial position reflects something contrary to expectation, while medial position reflects a contrast that is not necessarily unexpected. However, neither of these studies provides any descriptive evidence of the actual positions of sentence connectors in academic texts. In the present paper, we report on a preliminary study of sentence connector position in a sample of twelve published articles.