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巴西经济增长 政局潜在不稳定因素
张宝宇

关于巴西当前的政治经济形势,笔者提出以下3个基本看法,以期共同探讨。 (一)经济形势明显好转,但基础并不坚实。1990年至1992年巴西经济连续3年处于停滞状态。然而,自1992年最后一个季度起,经济形势渐趋好转。在工业生产方面,汽车、拖拉机、柴油机、电子产品、电力等都取得了较大幅度的增长。由于销售市场看好,企业家充分利用闲置设备,纷纷投资更新设备以扩大生产,把更大的发展希望寄托于未来。在农业生产方面,1993年是自1986年以来巴西农业生产形势最好的一年,粮食产量可达7600万吨。更重要的是农业生产的发展主要靠自筹资金而不是依靠银行贷款。外贸总额估计可达624亿美元,其中出口额380亿美元,进口额240亿美元,但通货膨胀仍居高不下。对于巴西1993年的经济形势,巴西舆论界作以下概括:工业的进军号又重新吹响,生产停滞即将过去,通货膨胀猖狂如故。巴西官方对 1993年经济形势非常乐观,认为1993年巴西国内生产总值可望增长500。若果然如此,这将是自1986年以来最好的成绩。更有乐观者认为,国民生产总值可能达到或超过6%,从而超过智利、阿根廷和墨西哥。但包括拉美经委会在内的国际权威机构对巴西的经济形势持更加谨慎的态度。国际货币基金组织甚至认为,巴西经济在1993年仍将处于衰退之中。笔者认为,1993年巴西经济形势虽已取得明显好转,但只是恢复性增长,不能估计过高。 从宏观经济环境来考察,导致巴西经济形势好转的原因是多方面的。诸如国外市场的相对扩大,国外资金流入增加,外债偿还期推迟,在部分行业中,国家、企业和工人签订新的契约,从而形成新的关系,使生产稳定运行。利率下调也是极为重要的条件。1992年12月30日,佛朗哥总统向全国发表演说时指出,国家面临的衰退局面不能再继续下去。并表示他的政府不能接受其前任科洛尔政府的正统的反通货膨胀政策。这种政策将降低利率列为财政收支取得平衡之后的目标,因而它是以恶化经济形势为代价的。佛朗哥政府则以降低利率来诱导生产投资的恢复和扩大。1992年利率为42%, 1993年降至16%。利率的降低有利于扩大生产性贷款,也因减少了金融投机活动的利润而使资金转向生产领域,从而导致生产增长。 在1993年经济的恢复增长过程中,前向关联产业的带头增长作用非常明显。汽车工业1993年上半年产量估计达62.5万辆,是自1980年以来同期最高水平。8月份生产汽车达13.4万辆,是自1957年以来的36年间月产量最高纪录。民用建筑业经过13个“冬天”之后,迎来了可喜的“春天”。以圣保罗城为例,1992年上半年出售民用住宅仅58栋,1993年协1季度即销售124栋。建筑业的繁荣与13年前的景气尚有不同之处。当时主要是靠国家的资助和补贴,而现在的民用建筑业主要靠自身融资发展。汽车工业与民用建筑业的发展带动了一系列相关行业的发展。 近年来巴西企业生产率的提高对1993年经济形势的好转起了重要作用。在科洛尔执 政期间,由于紧缩银根,国内市场萎缩,也由于放宽进口,巴西企业面临来自国外产品的激烈竞争。在这种严峻的考验面前,巴西企业不得不进行技术改进和提高管理水平, 以质优价廉的产品求得生存和发展,生产率 因此而得以提高。这种情况在巴西被称为 “悄悄的革命”。据统计,大圣保罗地区的A、B、 C、 D地区的生产率提高了30%至50%。生产一件产品的时间由平均10小时降为2小时;产品出厂价格下降20%,库存减少80%。另外,最近几年,农村也在发生悄悄的变化。国家补贴的不足迫使农业生产者更加有效地使用自己不多的资金。采用良种、改进耕作技术,使农业生产率提高了约30%。 1983年玉米单产1700公斤,1993年增至2400公斤。因此,可以说,1993年巴西经济形势的好转主要是由私人部门带动的,而政府所提供的合作是很有限的。 日前巴西月通货膨胀率达30%以上;税制混乱,税负不均;国营企业私有化进展缓慢;财政赤字1993年估计为2.7%,估计1994年可能达到7.6%。这一切都说明,巴西的宏观经济环境并未达到理想程度。特别是由于银行利润过大,生产企业的资金积累受到严重影响。 1993年上半年,巴西最大的私人商业银行巴西贴现银行所获利润为1.6亿美元,紧随其后的是伊塔乌银行,利润约1.3亿美元,远远高出发达国家银行利润。1987年至1991年的4年中,巴西银行的利润率为13%,同期欧洲银行的利润率大约是9%,美国银行是7%。不仅如此,与本国的非金融企业相比,巴西银行的利润率显得更高。1992年,500家非金融企业的利润率为2.2%,而50家大银行的平均利润率是9.8%。银行因高通货膨胀而大大获利,高利率反过来又加剧了通货膨胀。佛朗哥总统认为,必须进行银行改革,以使其不能获取超额利润,而使利润降至可以接受的水平”①。 由此可见,巴西的宏观经济环境并未得到明显好转,199年国民经济运行良好并非建立在坚实的基础上。对于1993年经济形势,巴西学术界认为,1993年巴西经济表现出“肌肉痉挛”性质。 (二)政治改革正在深入进行,联邦中央权力趋于集中,经济对外更加开放,因此也必将引起更激烈的社会利益冲突。在政治方面,1993年已经进行和正在进行的大事主要有3件。其一,4月22日就国体与政体的选择问题举行了全国公民投票,最后决定巴西仍实行总统制共和国形式。其二,联邦众议院目前正在为1994年大选制定新的“竞赛规则”,针对当年科洛尔竞选总统时所发生的弊端及其他问题,众议院已提出一系列修改意见,诸如提出总统候选人的政党所应具备的资格,个人和企业可以向竞选者提供资助的规模,等等。1994年大选将有35000名候选人参加竞选州议员、联邦参议员与众议员、州长和共和国总统。其三,自10月6日起,议会正在对1988年宪法进行修订。 1988年宪法是在1985年文人执政后对军人政权时期的196 9年宪法作重大修改基础上制定的。1988年宪法对原来州的建制曾作过重大变更,它强化了议会的权力,肯定了自由企业精神,提出了有关“巴酉企业”的新概念。它的最大特点还在于充分规定了公民的权利和义务,因此,被誉为“公民宪法”。但1983年宪法的某些规定限制了巴西前进的步伐,不适应当前国内外形势的需要,起不到指导国家发展的作用。据报道,巴西国会将可能对1988年宪法中的税制、社会福利、外资经营领域、国家垄断范围、政治改革 (包括政党制度、县级选举等)、公务员制度,特别是对联邦、州与市3级关系作重新调整。 自1891年成立共和国时起,巴西联邦中央、州与市之间的三级关系就没有得到很好解决。中央集权与分权交替占主导地位。独裁统治时期中央集权占上风,“民主政府”时期则倾向于分权。1988年宪法是政权由军人独裁转向文人民主政府时期制定的,因此,存在着反集权倾向,它使州、市过多地参与了联邦的收入分配。联邦所得税收入的47%和工业产品税的JI%转移到州、市手中,而在军人统治时期这一比重仅为12%0间题还在于这部宪法对3级政府的义务规定得不够明细,因而往往相互推委,使联邦无法操作。这次宪法修订就是要重新确立中央与地方的关系,即在联邦中央、州与市3者之间建立起新的“公约”。预计本次修宪还可能对外资经营活动范围作出较为宽松的规定。税制混乱和税务负担不合理也是巴西当前经济领域中一个最重要的问题。它导致全国13万家企业偷税、漏税。修宪后,将扩大税基,降低税负,同时提高税收的使用效益。 修宪涉及调整各阶层、不同社会利益集团的利益关系,因此已引起社会的强烈反响。首先,在对待是否修宪的问题上存在着3种意见:以全国工业联合会为代表的一派主张进行尽可能广泛的修改;以巴西民主运动党、巴西社会民主党和自由阵线党为代表的一派主张进行小范围的修改;以劳工党、巴西律师组织和大学生全国联盟为代表的一派则主张不定期推迟修订。其次,对于修宪内容提出不同的主张。一些党派、行会和团体纷纷集会,讨论修宪问题并向国会提出议案。在原宪法制定过程中曾为捍卫其自身利益而成立的农村民主联盟,又重新动员起来进军巴西利亚,以维护已取得的利益。所以,宪法的修订必然费时而且充满斗争。 (三)社会问题依然严重。前总统科洛尔曾因腐败行为而于1992年12月29日被议会最终裁决离职,成为巴西103年共和国历史上第1个被废黜的总统,引起世界舆论的震动。然而,政府高级官员的腐败行为并未就此终止。被认为有可能出任下届总统的巴西民主运动党主席奥雷斯特斯·克恰,在科洛尔下台后又成了被指控的目标,因而不得不辞去党的主席职务。现政府的前财长埃利塞乌·雷德也因涉嫌一宗贪污案于1993年5月辞职。同年10月,又暴出一批议员的贪污、受贿案件,使议会陷入混乱。巴西政府官员的腐败行为之所以接连发生,据认为原因是这场反腐败斗争只针对受贿的一头,而没有触及行贿的一头。因此,巴西的腐败现象具有更深层的社会原因。 南部分裂主义活动一度非常猖獗。南部系指巴拉那、圣卡塔利纳和南里约格朗德3个州。这3个州白人居多,是所谓“更欧洲化的地区”。它的开发较晚,但发展较快。自19世纪20年代后,由于受到德国人、意大利人和斯拉夫人等欧洲移民迁入的推动,经济开发速度加快,它已成为巴西的发达地区之一。以人均国内生产总值指数衡量,1990年全巴西为100,南部地区为111,而东北部只有540 1993年以来,主张3个州独立的活动愈演愈烈,出现了约20余个独立运动组织,其中一个名叫伊尔顿·马克斯的德国人后裔领导的运动主张3个州合并,成立高乔幡帕共和国。该组织以各种传播媒体宣传独立的好处。它认为,“一旦分裂,我们将成为第一世界”。主张3个州独立另建国家的还有一个称为“南部是我的国家”运动。还有个组织主张将南里约格朗德州一分为二,一部分归巴西,另一部分独立,建立一个名叫皮拉蒂尼(Piratini)的共和国,并把首都定在佩洛塔斯(Pelotas)。巴西联邦共和国政府对此持坚决反对态度。佛朗哥总统已责成司法部和联邦警察局依法制止这一分裂活动。目前看来事态已得到控制,但此事件所产生的文化与经济原因并未消失,应当说,分裂活动依然是潜在的隐患。 暴力已成为巴西国民的第二位死因。1993年7月,里约热内卢军警凶残地枪杀街头青少年。同月,军警为报复黑帮团伙杀害警察而闯入里约热内卢贫民区,致使无辜贫民10余人死亡。8月,一些淘金者在亚马孙地区袭击土著人村落,打死数10名印第安人。上述事件引起社会各界强烈反响,巴西的国际形象再次受损。据巴西卫生部的调查,1980年16.2%的巴西男人成为暴力的牺牲品,1988年这一比重增至18.87%,其增长势头至今未得到扼制。因暴力死亡的比率最高的地区是贫穷的东北部。值得思考的是,暴力的受害者已失去对国家机器的信任。据巴西地理统计局的调查,从1987年10月至1988年9月期间的失盗者中,有68%的人没有向警方报案。在他们看来,报案不仅不会得到保护,反而可能招惹是非。 总之,1993年巴西的经济形势虽有好转,但继续增长的基础并不牢固,政治局势因各阶层和各利益集团之间利益的重新分配与调整而不稳。社会问题众多,已成为严重隐患。佛朗哥总统的国民支持率在急剧下降。70年代尼克松曾说过,“巴西向何处去,拉丁美洲也将向何处去”。而今,巴西在拉美的经济主导地位已被其他拉美国家所取代的趋势,看来还很难说已经得到扭转。 巴西严重形势的形成主要是由于深刻的社会与政治原因。巴西存在着强大的利益集团,它们抵制各种与已不利的改革。自军政权结束以来,巴西处丁激烈的社会变革之中,政治制度受到前所未有的压力,并陷入混乱之中。国内党派林立(截至1992年5月,已有约40余个),至今未形成几个主导党派。佛朗哥总统在其以往的政治生涯中,虽然已先后参加过6个不同的政党和联盟,但从未成为一名具有政治影响力的领袖。科洛尔总统被废黜后,他以无党派身分就任总统,没有政党根基。他的政府是以巴西民主运动党、巴西社会民主党和白由阵线党3党联合为基础的。但由于党派利益关系,3大政党之间,以及政府与党派之间不断发生冲突,政府的政策得不到议会及时通过或被否决,即使通过了的决议,也往往难以贯彻执行。但是,也正是由于政党力量过于分散,才没有形成能与佛朗哥争夺地位的势力,加上巴西军队目前仍由维宪派执掌,尚未表现出干预政治的意向,佛朗哥政府才得以执政直至任届期满。

____________________________ ①巴西《请看》杂志,1993年8月11日。

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...BA356 International Business Management 1) You are the risk manager assigned to a municipal public works team in charge of school construction and operations.  It has become clear that the current elementary schools in your town are inadequate for the number of students that are currently being served; in addition, many of the schools were built in the 1950s and are in serious need of repair.  Project Document: Risk is a powerful force in innovative organizations for the obvious reason that it means the future outcomes of decisions are uncertain and, less obviously, because it can foster decision biases like loss aversion and over-optimism. The construction or retrofitting of a school building is a valuable educational opportunity with the potential to further strengthen community ownership of the school and demonstrate hazard-resilient techniques that can be replicated in homes and other buildings. Every school must be constructed as a safer school and existing unsafe schools must be retrofitted to be disaster resilient. The Education for All will not be achieved without the construction of safer and more disaster resilient education facilities. At a time when the frequency and magnitude of extreme climatic events is rising, a growing number of the world’s school-going children are increasingly exposed to earthquakes, wildfires, floods, cyclones, landslides and other natural hazards. For example: • The Sichuan earthquake (2008) killed more than 7,000 children...

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...School/Portfolio | The Business School | Course Code/ID | BSMAN3007 | Course Title | International Business Management | Program(s) | Bachelor of Applied Management | Lecturer | Chirs Pan | Author | Wang Lin yu | Email | lynne.lowkey@gmail.com | FIN | G0961866Q | Date | 10 Jan 2013 | 1. Exective summary This case study discusses the business strategies used by Apple, Microsoft and Google in internet industry。Everyone know the Internet has developed into an enormous information infrastructure. This new economy is driven by a relentless force of technological and conceptual innovations stemming from an innumerable number of parties scattered around the globe. Its speed of change and innovation make it to a highly competitive arena. Apple, Microsoft and Google have been the most successful companies within this arena for a long time. Throughout the previous decades, they have internalized the economic laws and technological characteristics of the Internet in their business thinking. Their strategies and competitive moves did not only form the information economy as we know it today, but do also provide showcase examples of how profitable market positions can be achieved in the Internet. Table of content Introduction My report answers some questions: How did Apple, Microsoft and Google successfully navigate and define the competitive arena of the Internet? Which roles did their unique strengths play for their business strategies? Which...

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...[pic] MGT 3446 – International Business and Management Final Project Microsoft -Business in China Megan DeMeo August 23, 2013 1. Case Summary Microsoft decided to enter into China back in 1992 and opened its first sales office in Beijng. China has an extremely large market of consumers which is the main reason many, including Microsoft, have been lured into China to start business. China also has a large number of inexpensive laborers that allows for work to be completed on a product and then to be sold at the same price but made for much less. Microsoft was also lured into China by the size of its market and its phenomenal economic growth as well as the Chinese engineering talent that was available. Microsoft has experienced complications over the years while performing business in China which has included piracy of its products. This was a major problem in the beginning, has been a constant issue over the years, and is still troubling Microsoft today. 2. Company Background The Microsoft Corporation is a multinational software company that was created in America and is headquartered in Redmond, Washington. The company was founded in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen. The company develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services related to computers and other electronic devices including video gaming systems. Microsoft operating systems, such as Vista...

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...INTRODUCTION KENGEN (Kenya Electricity Generating Company Limited) is the leading electric power generation company in Kenya, producing about 80 percent of electricity consumed in the country. The company utilizes various sources to generate electricity ranging from hydro, geothermal, thermal and wind. Hydro is the leading source, with an installed capacity of 766.88MW, which is 64.9 per cent of the company’s installed capacity. KENGEN has a workforce of 1,670 staff located at different power plants in the country. With its wealth of experience, established corporate base and a clear vision, the company intends to maintain leadership in the liberalized electric energy sub-sector in Kenya and the Eastern Africa Region. HEALTH AND SAFETY. Health and safety (HS) is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of occupational safety and health programs is to foster a safe and healthy work environment. As secondary effects, Health and safety may also protect: - ➢ Co-workers ➢ Family members ➢ Employers ➢ Customers ➢ Suppliers ➢ Nearby communities and other members of the public who are impacted by the workplace environment as well as reduce medical care, sick leave and disability benefit costs. Health and safety aims to protect workers form discomfort and physical injury at work. Providing a healthy and safe environment in which to work is now a legal requirement in...

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...For example, an Atlanta woman who posts that she has become engaged might be offered an ad for a wedding photographer on her Facebook page. However, Facebook’s goal is to get it users to share as much data as possible, because the more Facebook knows about user, the more accurately it can serve relevant advertisement to users. The only option that user have is that Internet companies should be forced to ask for permission before using user’s personal information and want the ability to opt out of online tracking. Ethical dilemma in this case study is Facebook monitors its subscribers and then sells the information to advertisers and app developers. 2) What is the relationship of privacy to Facebook business model? The relation between user’s privacy and Facebook business model is important because Advertising is the mainly revenue of Facebook. 70% of its five million users log in every day and they all between 18 and 24 that advertisers want to collaborate with Facebook to make...

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...foreign investment in order to supply it's mega-projects, and thus, this is the prime time to expand into Thailand. Although there are some difficulties right now in Thailand, such as the political state which involves the Red and Yellow Shirts, the Minister of Foreign Affairs assures other countries that they will do their best to protect the foreign companies when they expand into Thailand. Furthermore, the cultural problems involved when expanding into a different country is slightly reduced due to the fact that Thailand and Malaysia are neighbours, and thus, share some similar culture. Therefore, this is the correct time to expand into Thailand, in order to get a foothold into what is forecasted to be an excellent country to have a business in later. Thus, Grippy Tyres should take advantage of this opportunity to expand into Thailand when they are welcoming foreign investors. 1.0 Introduction The main purpose of this research is to examine the different environmental...

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...International Business ManagementRegional Trading Blocs | | | | | | | | Table of contents Introduction……………………………………………….……………………. 3 Section one...…………………………………………………………………….4 Section two …………………………………………...……………………...….7 Section three ……………………………….………........………………...….10 Conclusion …………………………………………………………….......…..11 References …………………………………………………………………..…12 Introduction Regional trading blocs have originally emerged since late 1950s, and overtime have posed significant contributions towards international business activities among certain regions, particularly Eastern Europe, Latin America and East Asia. This has guaranteed great opportunities for the countries across these regions to increase trade with their neighbors and work toward a broader free trade system. As an example, the European Union (EU) is a confederation which has been formed in 1958 and includes 27 member states which are primarily located throughout the European continent. Its major activities and policies are concerned about the free movement of capital, goods, services and even people, while maintaining common policies on trade, agriculture, regional development and fisheries within the 27 countries. Such collaboration among countries is a key factor towards further developments and growth in the region. Similarly, Latin American countries have made several attempts towards effective integration of their economies and societies. The outcomes of such...

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...Starbucks Entry Mode in India Executive Summary: The following report consists of the entry mode chosen by STARBUCKS to enter the Indian Market of Coffee House. This Report will give you a better understanding about an organization’s require to expand globally. Globalisation plays a very important role for any organization. It helps the company to expand over different areas and connect with different people. The report depicts about the entry mode chosen by STARBUCKS to invade the Indian market. It also briefs about the competitive Environment faced by STARBUCKS to gain the desired market share. It also consists of the Political, Economical, Social and Technological Analysis faced by STARBUCKS and the Corporate Strategy used to survive among the rivalry. This report clearly discusses the Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats faced by STARBUCKS in the Indian Economy and how they have been successful to overcome them. Followed by the conclusion part which states how successful was the chosen entry mode and growth of STARBUCKS in its new market. Vanessasong.(2012).Retrieved from http://blogs.ubc.ca/vanessasong/2012/11/15/doesnt-matter-what-starbucks-sells-india-loves-it/ Table of Contents: Assignment Cover Sheet…………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………1 Assignment 1 – Research Report…………………………………………….………..………………………………………….…………...2 Project Starbucks India...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3 Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

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...STUDENT ID: 4232393 STUDENT NAME: (Prashant Shukla) GreenHomeConstruction ------------------------------------------------- 375 West Street, Springfield, IL 62705; Tel: 217-555-3202; www.greenhomeconstruction.com Proposal of Renovation Date: April 23, 2014 Work to be performed for and at: Lucy Franklin and Alex Thomas 287 Miller Street Springfield, IL 62711 Scope of work: Renovation of second floor bathroom and bedroom according to architectural plans supplied by the customer. 1. Demo of all partitions, bathroom, and chimney. $4,125 2. Framing and drywall (skim coat), including ceilings and closets. $5,125 3. Finish work: window casings, door casings, ceiling molding. $3,750 4. Floor, wall, and ceiling prep and patch work. $2,500 5. Floor tile — installation only (100 sq. ft.). $625 6. Wall tile — installation only (100 sq. ft.). $750 7. Cabinet installation in bathroom. $600 8. Bamboo floor: layover in bedroom. (182 sq. ft.). $1,456 9. Shower door and recessed medicine cabinet. $500 10. Blown-in insulation, work area (approx. 800 sq. ft.). $2,000 11. Shelving above dryer and closets and poles (2 closets). $800 12. Patching of duct, trim, and offset duct. $937 13. Coordination of patching and boxing of pipes and heading-off joists. $1,875 14. Permit and inspection services. $500 Total estimated job cost: $25,543 Approximate job time: Six weeks ...

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...and thinking are determination. There has been a long journey for Leicester city to reach its goal in Premiership success which is within 132 years. LC got their Premier League Champion this year because of their dogged spirit and determination, fought for the last minute goal and finally grinding out their triumph. Hence, if we truly know that we are doing the right thing, we should have the determination and persistence to practice it every day as well as treat every failure and obstacles as our learning possibilities, believe something that is unbelievable, it will get us a long way to success. Besides, an entrepreneur who wants to succeed more and driving sustained business success, they are few lessons can be learned from LCFC victory for every entrepreneur in order to assimilate and apply in their business. Therefore building a right winning culture for the entrepreneurial is a key to success. The achievement of LC look like overnight success for a casual fan, but behind the story there are many important element which lead to the success. In order to justify that culture is a key element in entrepreneurial; Claudio Ranieri the manager of Leicester City has created a culture among player by inspiring and gets the player bond by each other. Therefore the player will seem the team as a whole without any selfishness. In 2014, according to Gallup survey stated that there a less than 1/3 of American employees who actually engaged in their job. Therefore, to build a solid and winning...

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