...for free-will comes from the psychological argument, which suggests that people have a subjective sense of free-will and all people are able to make their own free choices about their behaviour. Evidence for this comes from Dr. Johnson in the 18th Century who sustained the idea that ‘we know our will is free, and there’s an end on ‘t’. (A01) However, a counterargument towards the psychological argument is that simply feeling that you are free does not mean that this is true. Skinner claimed that free will was an illusion – we think we are free, but this is because we are not aware of how our behaviour is determined by reinforcement. Freud also thought that free will was an illusion, because he felt that the causes of our behaviour is unconscious and therefore still predictable. (A02 ) In contrast, Valentine (1982) claims that this subjective sense of free will is tenable (reasonable). It is something that can be studied and thus shown to be true, e.g., attitudes towards free will have been found to increase with age and are also more common in individualistic cultures such as the USA and UK where personal responsibility receives greater emphasis. (A02 ) Another argument for free will in psychology derives from the ethical argument. This states that if an individual’s behaviour is determined by forces beyond their control, then the individual cannot be held responsible for their actions. For example, Stephen Mobley who killed a pizza shop manager in 1981, claimed...
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...approaches to the study of society. (33marks) Interactionism is an action approach, which focuses on the individual, and tries to understand and interpret human behaviour. They focus on the study of individuals, and how society is constructed by members’ interactions and meanings. They also focus on how human action is meaningful and can be interpreted by an observer. Therefore they take an opposite approach to structural theories and believe individuals have the ability to create society through choice, meaning and action. Symbolic interactionism is concerned with explaining social actions in terms of the meanings that people give to them. Interactions are based on meanings we give to situations. We express these meanings through symbols, especially language. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry out human action and interactions. Language and communication deepens our capacity to become self-aware and aware of others. In addition to ‘talking to others’ we engage in talking to ourselves’, that is, engaging in internal conversations when we are making decisions. Mead (1863-1931) states that humans use symbols as a mean of interacting. Without these symbols there would be no human interaction and human society. Symbolic interaction is necessary since humans have no instincts to direct their behaviour. Mead recognized that people had the capacity to reflect on their own actions. This is because everyone has a self which consists of two parts: the ‘I’ is the...
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...Social Influence: Key Terminology Agentic state a state of feeling controlled by an authority figure, and therefore lacking a sense of personal responsibility. Authoritarian personality identified by Adorno et al. as someone who is more likely to be obedient. These people tend to hold rigid beliefs, and to be hostile towards other groups and submissive to authority. Autokinetic effect - a visual illusion where a small spot of light in a darkened room appears to be moving when in fact it is stationary. Autonomous state - being aware of the consequences of our actions and therefore taking voluntary control of our behaviour. Buffers - aspects of situations that protect people from having to confront the results of their actions. Collectivistic cultures - cultures (such as many in the Far East) in which the emphasis is on group solidarity and interdependence. Commitment - an individual's involvement in, and motivation for, a given viewpoint. Compliance - conforming to the majority view in order to be liked, or to avoid ridicule or social exclusion. Compliance occurs more readily with public behaviour than private behaviour, and is based on power. Conformity - changes in behaviour and/or attitudes occurring in response Consistency - the extent to which the same opinions are expressed by all minority group members (interindividual consistency) and over time (intra-individual consistency). Conversion - the influence of the minority on the majority. This is likely to affect...
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...* Abnormal Behaviour: Behaviour that differs from the norm * Adaptive: Behaviours that promote survival and reproduction. * Agentic State: When a person is under the control of an authority figure. * Alturism: Helping behaviour. Putting other people before you. * Attachment: The strong emotional bond between a baby and their carer. * Behaviourism: An approach to Psychology that believes that all behaviour can be explained by the learning theory. * Bystander behaviour: The theory that within a potential helping scenario the presence of other people reduces the victim's chances of receiving help. * Case Study: A research method that involves looking in detail at a single person, event or organisation. * Cognition: This refers to our higher mental processes such as believing, acquiring knowledge and perceiving. * Control: Control refers to the extent to which an experimenter can claim that the behaviour recorded in experiment is as a result of the independent variable. * Correlation: A measure of the extent to which two variables are related. For example, a positive correlation is when two variables increase together and a negative correlation is when one variable increases and the other one decreases. * DE individuation: When loss of personal identity occurs. E.g. when a person is part of a crowd. * Determinism: The belief that all human actions are determined by causes that are outside of our control * Demand Characteristics: Features...
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...vs Determinism | The determinist view beileves that all behaviour is determined and therefore predictable. Whereas the free will view believes that people have the power to make their own choices, there fore making behaviour self determined. | Determinism - A deterministic approach is more scientific. It isolates a variable and tries to examine this scientifically therefore increasing validity - Knowing what factors determine a particular behaviour can be extremely useful with practical applications such as genetic malification | Determinism - Determinist views discount individual differences- It is possible to chose some of our behaviours as we choose to respond in a certain way | Reductionism vs Holism | Reductionism is the belief that behaviour can be explain buy splitting and sectioning behaviours, sometimes over simplifying the human brain. Holism on the over hand accepts behaviour can be explained through the use of combinations of psychological aprroaches and debates | Reductionist- By focusing on one thing we can clearly see a cause and effect - It is possible to build up an increasingly complete explanation of psychological phenomena | Reductionist - It is possible to miss out other factors decreasing validity - Reductionist approach is invariably linked with the experimental method which frequently lacks ecological validity. | Nature vs Nurture | This debate is concerned with finding whether behaviours are either inherited (genetic) or aquired (learned) charecteristics...
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...Abstract This paper will examine the 2008 financial crisis. In this paper we will answerer what caused the financial crisis of 2008, and what has happened since then. It will focus on risky behaviour and increased asymmetric information almost always lead to more risky behaviour and eventually a cycle thus causing a contraction in an economy. It would highlight the main causes and effects. Finally there would be an analysis and conclusion with recommendations. Introduction The year is 2008, the greatest ever economic issue is upon us, could even be described as a disaster. The financial crisis is one that changed landscapes literally and figuratively and forced the implementation of laws to avoid such a disaster happening again. With its...
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...How do people explain their own and other people’s behaviour? People’s explanations of behaviour come from making attributions. Attributions are when we assign a causal meaning behind behaviour (Michael A. Hogg, 2014). For example, someone may attribute being given a compliment to dispositional factors such as them looking good or to external factors such at the other person being friendly. Attribution theories are not necessarily the actual cause of behaviour, but scientific theories behind what humans perceive to be the cause of behaviour (Försterling, 2013). Throughout our life we will construct our own, naive reasons for other peoples’ behaviour in order to gain a stable and predictive view of the world around us. While they are prone to...
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...parental genes, you are born with a set of characteristics. Your personality is similar to your parents/siblings’ personalities for this reason. Behaviour is natural, steady and permanent and will not change due to environmental factors. An example of this would be the Williams sisters in tennis, who are both world-class tennis players. Trait theorists would say that these genes were inherited as they were successful from a young age; meaning they were born with their personality, which caused them to be successful. However, trait views are too general and simplistic and that personality alone cannot predict success in a sporting environment and has no consideration of environmental effect. It can also predict behaviour in a limited manner but traits cannot predict how an individual will behave in a particular situation. Eysenck Personality Types There are 4 types of personality that Eysenck explained; Stable, Neurotic, Introvert and Extrovert. Stable This is a predictable, steady-going personality type, which are generally mood predictable and they are relatively calm; an example of this would be Djokovic, the tennis player. He is calm and collected whilst playing tennis and is relatively predictable. These kinds of athletes are great for sports that require a constant emotional state, like golf or swimming as they can be mood predictable and perform well consistently as they are less likely to become frustrated and therefore enhance their own performance as they are calm and...
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...inner processes and to involve them actively in his line of therapy. His efforts led to the emergence of a new, powerful system of analysis of behavior called Transactional Analysis (TA). Beme first put forth his ideas on TA in a book titled Games People Play, which immediately became very popular. Beme and his associates in their subsequent work developed these ideas. Thus, with efforts of Beme and many other behavioral scientists, TA transcended the boundaries of therapy to enter the world of lay people, their lives on-the-job, and off-the-job. II. Ego States The unit of analysis used in TA for understanding human behavior is called ego state. An ego state is a consistent pattern of feelings and experiences relating to corresponding, consistent patterns of behavior (Beme, 1972). According to Beme, each person has three basic ego states, namely Parent, Adult, and Child. II.I. The Parent Ego State This reflects the attitudes, feelings and ideas absorbed by us in our childhood from our parental figures. When...
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...January-2007 MAC/ADSM Page-213 1403_985928_17_cha14 January-2007 MAC/ADSM Page-214 1403_985928_17_cha14 CHAPTER 14 Complexity Perspective Jean Boulton and Peter Allen Basic principles The notion that the world is complex and uncertain and potentially fast-changing is much more readily acceptable as a statement of the obvious than it might have been 30 years ago when complexity science was born. This emerging worldview sits in contradistinction to the view of the world as predictable, linear, measurable and controllable, indeed mechanical; it is the so-called mechanical worldview which underpins many traditional approaches to strategy development and general management theory (see Mintzberg, 2002 for an overview). The complexity worldview presents a new, integrated picture of the behaviour of organisations, marketplaces, economies and political infrastructures; these are indeed complex systems as we will explain below. Some of these behaviours are recognised in other theories and other empirical work. Complexity theory is unique in deriving these concepts through the lens of a coherent, self-consistent scientific perspective whilst nevertheless applying it to everyday, practical problems. These key principles can be summarised here: There is more than one possible future This is a very profound point. We are willing to accept the future may be too complicated to know, but the notion that the way the future may evolve is, generally,unknowable...
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...Consumer behaviour is the study of individuals, groups, or organisations and the processes they use to select, secure, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society (Kuester, 2012). These helps the marketers to answer questions such as why people choose one product or brand over another, how they make these choices, and how companies use this knowledge to provide value to consumers. Specifically, we considered a number of internal factors that influence consumer behaviour including motivation and learning to help us in understanding the consumer. Solomon, et al (2010:177) defines motivation as “the process that cause people to behave as they do … Motivation occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy. Once a need has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to eliminate or reduce the need.” Dr Abraham Maslow formulated a widely accepted theory of human motivation based on the notion of a universal hierarchy of human needs. This identifies five basic levels of human need which rank in order of importance from lower level needs (biogenic) to higher level needs (psychogenic). This theory says that individuals need to satisfy the lower needs before higher level needs arise (Maslow, 1965). Physiological needs are the lowest or the first level needs. These include food, water, air, clothing, and shelter. Once the first...
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...Classroom Management Krystal Alford AED/200 March 31, 2013 Melissa Randolph An Effective Classroom Management Workshop Workshop Presenter: Krystal Alford Organization, Motivation, Discipline, and teaching style Organization, motivation, discipline and a teaching style are all essential elements of an effective classroom that acts as a positive learning environment for students. Classroom organization can affect how students learn and your own ability as a teacher to reach the students success. I set up my student’s desk where everything is visible to see, and I creatively use my classroom space to enhance the learning experiences of my students. Motivation should be major factor in a teacher's management of learning and behaviour in the classroom. In my classroom I use positive feedback and encouragement to help keep my students enthusiastic about learning and motivated to work during class. Discipline is also element essential for an effective functioning classroom. In my classroom we as a group set our classroom rules and actions for breaking them. The way you teach can be analyzed into different teaching styles and developing an effective teaching style requires time, effort, the willingness to try different teaching strategies. I use the facilitator teaching style where I focus on the activities; this style is centered on student-centered learning. I design student-to student collaboration, group activities, and problem solving. Organization, Motivation, Discipline...
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...strategy, which highlight one or more aspects of strategy, while ignoring the others, have led to a state of confusion as to what strategy really is. This is evident in the content-analysis of the vision, mission and value statements of a number of companies. Not only were the analysedanalyzed company- - specific statements vague and general, they were also unrelated to one another. Specifically, the espoused values were generic and terminal in nature and unrelated to the tasks and goals at hand. To avoid the confusion in the minds of practitioners, and as reflected in the literature itself, a Strategy Quadrant (content), consisting of Stand, Standing, Shared values and Steps is proposed. The process of developing the 4Ss of strategy is delineated in terms of Mintzberg's "think/see/do first" processes (Strategy Triangle). The context ofcontext of strategy is defined in terms of stability and complexity (Strategy Duality). It is argued that, in complex and unstable contexts, the traditional mode of "think-first" deliberate strategies which set "thinking" apart from "doing" is becoming increasingly ineffective. The unpredictability of complex contexts, in which we operate, leave us with no choice but to be markedly adaptive rather than attempt to be overly prepared. Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) are the order of the day, and the organization's Standing (desired future state) and Steps have to emerge in action, rather than be pre-determined, in the development of strategy...
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...Key Learnings from OB-2 course (Submitted by Rajat Dhingra, Roll No 26, PGPM-PT April 2014 batch) An organisation consists of individuals and each person has an inherent need to understand it because much of each individual's time is spent working in or around an organisation. Organisation Behaviour plays an important role in the management of business. It is that field of study which finds out the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within an organisation and it applies that knowledge to make organisations work more effectively. Organisations are open social systems and have complex structures. Companies use various structures such as- functional, divisional, matrix to achieve the flexibility that they require in terms of goals being met, faster decision making, adjust rapidly to the changing environment and reducing conflicts. There is no one size fits all approach and the structure is decided by various factors such as the environment, resources available, competitive position etc. We have also learnt about the role of business environment in influencing strategy of the company. To what extent strategy depends on the environment and how strategy shapes the structure. We have analysed the McKinsey 7s model which is a tool that analyzes firm’s organisational design by looking at 7 key internal elements: strategy, structure, systems, shared values, style, staff and skills, in order to identify if they are effectively aligned and allow organisation...
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...conversion, subtyping Attribution & Social Knowledge You have just arrived in a foreign country and find yourself becoming irritated at the seemingly aloof and offhand manner in which people respond to your requests for directions to the hotel. Is their unfriendliness deliberate? Might it be a cultural practice? Are you an intolerant person to have taken offence so readily? 09/26/07 Joseph Dodds 2006 4 Attribution & Social Knowledge Or does their behaviour simply confirm your expectations about people from that country? Do you really care? What factors would you take into account to explain their behaviour and your reactions? What might be the consequences of the explanation you arrive at? 09/26/07 Joseph Dodds 2006 5 Attribution Theory Attribution: process of assigning cause to our own or others behaviour We are preoccupied with seeking, constructing and testing explanations of our experiences To render it orderly, meaningful and predictable for adaptive action 09/26/07 Joseph Dodds 2006 6 Attribution Theory Attribution theory: 7 main theoretical emphases: Heider's (1958) 'naïve...
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