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Japanese Buddhism

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中日仏教における思想と教義の差異について

目 次
はじめに...................................................................................
1.中日仏教の受容の仕方の差異..................................................... 1.1中国仏教の受容の仕方......................................................... 1.2日本仏教の受容の仕方......................................................... 1.3中日仏教の流派について...................................................... 1.3.1中国仏教の流派............................................................ 1.3.2日本仏教の流派............................................................
2.中日仏教思想の差異..................................................................
2.1中国仏教の思想................................................................... 2.1.1中国仏教における老荘思想.............................................. 2.2日本仏教の思想................................................................... 2.2.1日本仏教における因果応報..............................................
3.中日仏教の教義の差異................................................................
3.1中国仏教の教義................................................................... 3.1.1結婚が禁じられる.......................................................... 3.1.2飲酒禁止...................................................................... 3.2日本仏教の教義................................................................... 3.2.1結婚ができる................................................................ 3.2.2飲酒ができる................................................................
参考文献....................................................................................

はじめに 仏教の日本への公伝は、朝鮮半島の百済国の聖明王が日本の欽明天皇に、仏像、経典等を贈ったという記録が最も古いものである。日本には中国、朝鮮半島から多くの人々が渡来していたことから、個人の信仰としては公伝以前に仏教信仰が日本に存在していたことは当然ありうることである初期の日本仏教には、百済仏教以外にも高句麗や新羅の仏教、さらには中国の南朝、北朝の仏教の影響が見られる。ただ、中でも大きな影響を与えたのは北貌、北斉などの北朝の仏教であった。たとえば、初期の止利様式の仏像に見られる様式や口もとにたたえられる微笑は北朝期の仏像に共通したものである。ただ。この時期に思想的に北朝期の仏教思想を深く理解していた形跡は見られない。当時、日本は大陸文化や諸制度を積極的に受容していた時期であり、仏教はそのための主要な媒体であった。

1.中日仏教の受容の仕方の差異 1.1中国仏教の受容の仕方 サンスクリット原典が中国で漢訳されると、原典は捨て去られ、解釈が一人歩きし、漢文、漢字を恣意的に解釈する事例が見られるようになった。サンスクリット語が漢訳された時点で翻訳改変が行われた事例から見ると、中国固有の家父長制的儒教倫理の価値観が反映した。仏教は国家とは一線を画していたが、中国と日本では鎮護国家のためのものとなった。日本では、当初から、国の利益に奉仕するもの、国政を安定させるものとして仏教が受容された。中国では、現実主義で、「現象即実在」の考え方が強調され、現実肯定論、煩悩肯定論、戒律無視となった面がある。 1.2日本仏教の受容の仕方 日本は、漢訳仏典を通して仏教を受容したが、その受容の仕方にも日本的な特徴がある。インドでは仏典はそれぞれの地域の言葉で音読され、中国では中国語で音読されたので、両国では、仏典は理解可能なものであった。日本では、漢訳教典は呉音で音読されたので、多くの日本人には理解不能であった。わからないものをありがたがる風潮が生じ、仏教の概念が低俗化した。また、道元、親鸞、日蓮等が恣意的解釈を行っている例も多い。集団よりも個人を重視したが、中国を経て日本に伝わるにつれて、その関係が逆転した。日本では、集団性が重視され、個人は人格よりも帰属する集団の立場や肩書きで判断された。仏教用語である「義理」は、本来、物事の正しい筋道、人の行うべき正しい道、道理という意味であるが、日本では、長上に対する義務という意味に変容した。インドでは、具体的な人格性としての「人」よりも、普遍的真理である「法」を重視していたが、その関係も中国、日本へと伝わるにつれて逆転した。インドでは、人よりも、法を重視したが、中国では、法を具現化した人を重視し、日本では、特定の人物に信を置くことが重視され、法王崇拝、宗祖個人への崇拝、帰依が重視された。日本では、仏教の考えが、豊かな作品を生み出す源泉となった。日本では、諸法実相は、自然観、文学論、芸術論として受容され、優れた文学、芸術を生む源泉になったが、人の生き方まで及ぶものにはならなかった。 1.3中日仏教の流派について 1.3.1中国仏教の流派 現在の仏教は、大きく、南伝仏教、チベット仏教、大乗仏教に分類される。この中で、中国に伝えられたのは小乗仏教だけである。南伝仏教は、インドではなくて、スリランカ、タイなどに残っている。インドでは仏教は、極少数派で、ヒンズー教に組み込まれているとも聞いた。仏教は、紀元前5世紀頃にお釈迦様によって説かれたもので、仏陀になることを勧め、仏陀になるための修行法を説く宗教である。お釈迦様の仏教(根本仏教)は、南伝仏教(上座部仏教)の「阿含経典」にのみ説かれている。阿含経典にのみ、仏陀になるための修行方法(七科三十七道品)が記されている。それは、瞑想を中心とした修行です。法華経を含む全ての大乗仏教経典は、中国の後の人々によって創作されたもので、お釈迦様がお説きになったものではない。お釈迦様の仏教は、本来、「現世」において瞑想を中心とした「仏陀」になるための修行法を実践する。お釈迦様が、大乗仏教で行われているような、お題目を唱えさせたり、念仏を唱えさせたり、仏を神様のように信仰させて現世利益を祈願するよう指導したためしはない、そうするはずもない。お釈迦様の仏教は、仏を神様のように信仰したり、現世利益(金、地位、名誉、権力、政治力、支配力)を仏に祈願したりするものではない。大乗仏教は、神様を信仰し現世利益を祈願する多神教のヒンズー教の影響を受けた。 中国天台宗、智顗の五時教判は、仏教を、「華厳時、阿含時、方等時、般若時、法華時、涅槃時」と分類したが、現在では、これは誤りであることが分かっている。なお、「妙法蓮華経方便品第二」に「此の諸の仏子の為に是の大乗経を説く我是の如き人来世に仏道を成ぜんと記す」とある通り、法華経は、「現世成仏」ではなく「来世成仏」を目的としている。これは、お釈迦様の教えではない。 1.3.2日本仏教の流派 日本は古来より日の本である。月は太陽が無ければ輝けない。ゆえに月の国の仏教である釈迦仏教は月の運行と同じく西から東に流布してきた。日本を極東というのも其の故であると思う。いずれにせよ聖徳太子は隋との国交を開く時、「日いずる国の天子処日の沈む天子に送る。」という表現をしているが、日本の国にたいする誇りと確信を感じる。日いずる国ゆえに釈尊の仏教をはるかに凌駕する仏が出現する国を意味するのが日本という国名である。釈迦自身が法華経神力品に「日月の光明の能く諸の幽冥を除くが如く、この人世間に行じて能く衆生の闇を滅せん」と述べている。意味合いは末法に全人類を救う人は、上行菩薩ただ一人であるという重大事の予言なのである。まさに末法に入り、鎌倉時代に釈迦の仏教は滅し、同時に出現されたのが釈迦のいう上行菩薩であり、その御方こそ「下種の本仏」たる「日蓮大聖人」なのである。
2.中日仏教思想の差異
2.1中国仏教の思想 2.1.1中国仏教における老荘思想 中国では、仏教を受け入れる過程で老荘思想と比較しながら受け入れました。これを「格義仏教」と言って、初期中国仏教では少なからず混乱を招く。
しかし、これは逆に見ればそもそもの仏教発想と老荘的発想が似ていた。「魚は江湖に相忘る」『荘子』の有名な言葉であるが、こういった道のあり方は
仏教の縁起のあり方とそっくりである。そうして、日本仏教が神道と習合しながら広まったように、中国仏教は三玄学と習合しながら広まった。禅が老荘に近く感じるのはその影響である。それでいて、悟りの核心の部分は純粋に仏教のものを伝えようとしている。そこが禅のへそ曲がりな所である。禅僧が中国の貴族に説法している。途中までは老荘の言い回しでモヤモヤイメージさせている。 2.2日本仏教の思想 2.2.1日本仏教における因果応報 日本霊異記の内容は、人をだまして私腹を肥やす偽の僧侶が火に焼かれたり、発育の遅い子をある僧侶の命により川に流したところ、その子は母が前世で借りを返していない相手であったなど、因果応報について説く内容となっている。まとまった説話集としては日本最古のもので、後の今昔物語などに強い影響を与えたと思われる。『日本霊異記』に合計一一六の説話(重複するものも多い)が収められ、因果応報をひたすらに説くその内容は日本の昔話の土台を作ったようにも感じる。私度僧がたびたび登場する。ほかにも道昭、行基、聖徳太子なども登場する。仏教が聖徳太子を通じて二元的世界観をもたらしたとされる。つまり、この世界は真実ではなくどこかに本当の世界がもう一つあるという考え方。聖徳太子は十七条憲法を作ったとされる。その冒頭に有名な和をもって貴しとなす、という言葉があるがその続きも理解しておくべきである。
3.中日仏教の教義の差異
3.1中国仏教の教義 3.1.1結婚が禁じられる 中国仏教の教義は、結婚を禁じている。小乗仏教においては、教派、宗派によってその扱いは様々で、律宗やチベット仏教のように伝統的な戒律を継承する場合もあれば、他の宗派のように、菩薩戒(三聚浄戒・十重禁戒)や、密教の三昧耶戒などを用いたりする場合もある。戒を守ること(「持戒」)は、大乗仏教の菩薩においては、六波羅蜜のひとつ「持戒波羅蜜」である。なお、仏教における大前提とも言える仏・法・僧の三宝への帰依を、「三帰依戒」などと、広い意味での戒と捉える考え方もある。 3.1.2飲酒禁止 中国仏教の僧侶の飲酒も禁じられている。僧侶(比丘・比丘尼)のみに課される戒である波羅提木叉(別解脱戒、具足戒)のことであり、僧団で守るべき集団規則である。戒の中でも波羅夷罪と呼ばれる四つの罪を破った場合には僧団を追放され、再び僧侶となることはできない。また、僧残罪では、僧団を追放されるということはないが、一定期間、僧としての資格を剥奪されるなど、罪により罰則の軽重が異なる。上座部仏教では227戒、大乗仏教では用いる律によってその数が異なるが、四分律の場合、比丘は250戒、比丘尼は350戒の戒がある。 3.2日本仏教の教義 3.2.1結婚ができる 日本へは、中国を通じて、仏教が入ってきた。現在でも、中国では、僧侶は独身で、日本人の女性リポ-タ-に対して『1m以上、離れてください』と、言って、距離を開けている。日本でも、浄土真宗の開祖見真大師親鸞師の妻帯迄、独身が原則であった。親鸞師の妻帯によって、以降、浄土真宗では、代々、寺院の子弟が世襲で僧侶に成り、続いてきた。なので、浄土真宗以外の宗派では、教義上、妻帯は禁止の筈である。
日本の民族宗教は、神社神道である。したがって、仏教が、日本へ伝わり、天皇が仏教に帰依した例が多いが、天皇の統制で、神仏習合が画策され、本来の仏教では無く、『日本教』化した。後に、江戸幕府が、キリスト教(カトリック)禁教の徹底の為に、寺請け制度を作り、仏教寺院を寺社奉行の配下に置き、通行手形(身分証明書)の発行、戸籍の管理、葬儀&仏事などの祭祠の執行を行い、その為に、仏教寺院が、江戸幕府の末端の行政組織となり、仏教僧侶が、権力を持つ様になった。
明治政府は、江戸幕府の解体を完全なものにする為もあって、仏教僧侶の権力を奪う手段の1つとして、僧侶の結婚を奨励した。仏教の教義戒律は、無視され、僧侶が、政府の奨励によって、結婚する様になった。 3.2.2飲酒ができる 日本の仏教は本来、戒律で、禁酒である。なので、酒と言う事ができず、酒類の事を『般若湯』と言い、飲酒していた。僧侶の間では、『酒=般若湯』の暗黙の了解があった。酒は少量ならば、血行促進効果があり、『薬だ』という感覚もあった様である。僧侶の肉食肉食も禁止であるが、一般の日本人も、明治維新以前は、一部の山の中の住民以外、肉食が一般的ではなかった。日本人が、牛肉&豚肉を食べる様になったのは、明治以降である。

おわりに 仏教が「我」を実体としてとらえていないこと、つまりは霊魂を否定している。これはすべてのものは関係性の上にのみ存在しているという縁起、空の思想を考えればたしかにその通りである。中国の儒教が魂の滅亡を主張したのに対抗する形で、仏教が霊魂を肯定するようになったとされるのは非常に面白い。日本の仏教史を見ても、過去に反発する形で新しい思想が生まれている。

参考文献
1.『支那佛教史』宇井伯寿著(〈岩波全書〉岩波書店、1936年)
2.『中国仏教通史』塚本善隆著(春秋社、1979年)
3.『中国史における仏教』アーサー・F・ライト著、木村隆一,小林俊孝訳(第三文明社、1980年)
4.『日本仏教史』1-5鎌田茂雄著(東京大学出版会、1982年-1994年)
5.『日本仏教の寺と歴史』鎌田茂雄著(大法輪閣、1982年)
6.『中国仏教制度史の研究』諸戸立雄著(平河出版社、1990年)
7.『仏教の中国伝来』エーリク・チュルヒャー著、田中純男,成瀬良徳,渡会顕,田中文雄訳(せりか書房、1995年)
8.『日本佛教史研究』塚本善隆著(弘文堂書房、1942年)

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...C Roberts Jr ETH/125 Lyron Baggerly October 2, 2014 The Asian Buddhism religion differs from other religions, as other religions differ from other religions. Asian Buddhism is unique, as it stands on its own, no other religion believe the same as Buddhism believes. Well maybe Atheist may believe one belief of Buddhism. But can we really consider Atheist as a religion. I assume we can, simply because it is a way of living and it holds morals and values. But I am not here to talk to you about Atheist; I am her to talk you about the Asian culture and their Buddhism religion. Asian Buddhism differs from other religions, except Atheist, in believing there is no God almighty that rewards or punishment on judgment day. A Buddha is not like Jesus Christ, who saves others by his own salvation. Although a Buddhist seeks refuge in the Buddha as their primary guide that represents the path of purity, but their do not completely surrender to him. A Buddhist does not think that he can gain purity by solely seeking salvation in Buddha or by pure faith in him. It is not within the power of a Buddha to wash away the impurities of others (BuddhaNet.com). Buddhism does not practice faith without questioning by all Buddhist followers. It places emphasis mainly on self-reliance, self-discipline, and individual striving. Buddhism believes in the concept that one is to be reborn, rather than reincarnated. In addition, Buddhism rejects that after life we are transformed into a permanent soul, or...

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