...Phonology The branch of linguistics dealing with the relations among speech sounds in particular languages and in languages generally, and contrasting with phonetics. Though the creation of alphabetic writing necessarily required some intuitive grasp of phonology, the subject only began to be distinguished from phonetics in the late nineteenth century, and the distinction was not firmly established until well into this century, particularly as a result of the work done by the Prague School, which popularized the term ‘phonology’ (Trask ,1996). Phonetics The scientific study of speech, conventionally divided into articulatory phonetics (the study of the organs of speech and their use in producing speech sounds),acoustic phonetics (the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speaking) and auditory phonetics (the study of the processing and interpretation of speech sounds by the ear, the nervous system and the brain); instrumental phonetics is the study of any of these by means of instruments to measure, record or analyse data. Anthropophonics (or general phonetics) considers the total range of speech sounds producible by the human vocal apparatus, independently of any real or possible linguistic use; linguistic phonetics examines the speech sounds occurring in particular languages or in languages generally. Phonetics is commonly regarded as a distinct discipline from linguistics, the two together being labelled the linguistic sciences (Trask,1996)...
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...A. LANGUAGE & LINGUISTIC 1. What is the meaning of language and linguistic? Language and linguistic are two different words that use differently all over the world. Language is the capacity of someone to communicate with other because it is the mode of expression of thoughts by means of articulation of sounds, exchanging ideas, feelings, intentions, attitudes, expectations, perceptions or commands, as by speech gestures, writings and behaviors. Therefore, language is a meaningful exchange of information between two or more individual. On the other hand, linguistic is a comparative study of language due to the fact that wherein you make a historical study of languages here. In this field you concentrate about the structure, rules, meanings and forms of languages. 2. How important is language and linguistic? In my own opinion, the significance of language in our lives is incomparable. It is not just restrained to being a means of communicating one’s thought and ideas to the rest, but has also become a tool for forging friendships, cultural ties, as well as economic relationships. In addition, the importance of language is essential to every aspect and interaction in our everyday lives. We use language to inform, to communicate the people around us of what we feel, what we desire and question or understand. We communicate effectively with our...
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...What is Linguistics? According to Professor David Crystal, Linguistics is the science of language. It is the subject whose practitioners devote their energy to understanding why human language is the way it is. They study the history, acquisition, structure, and use of as many languages as possible. In general, Linguistics studies the nature of human language. It aims to uncover the general structure of natural language which is not dependent on individual languages and ways in which languages can be described. Moreover, the discipline examines the characteristics that separate human language from other sign and communication systems. Both in teaching and research, language is studied in a versatile manner from the level of sounds to complete sentences and texts, their meanings and entire spoken discourses. Moreover, Linguistics studies regional, social and temporal changes occurring in language, context-related use of language and production, and understanding processes of linguistic messages from the perspective of individual psychology. Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. There are many approaches to the study of language, emphasizing different scientific traditions and aspects of the subject. Two broad divisions are the following: Theoretical Linguistics: the study of the structural properties of language, e.g., the rules or constraints that govern the formation and interpretation of words and sentences in the world's languages. Experimental...
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...ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS. PHONOLOGY 2.1. Phonetics and phonology Two terms are (often loosely) used to refer to linguistic disciplines studying that part of the linguistic sign which de Saussure called the acoustic image: phonetics and phonology. The importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning is something people have been aware of for thousands of years. However, systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with the development of modern sciences. The term phonetics used in connection with such studies comes from Greek and its origins can be traced back to the verb phōnein, to speak, in its turn related to phōnē, sound. The end of the 18th century witnessed a revival of the interest in the studying of the sounds of various languages and the introduction of the term phonology. The latter comes to be, however, distinguished from the former only more than a century later with the development of structuralism which emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled phonemes. The terms continue to be used, however, indiscriminately until the prestige of phonology as a distinct discipline is finally established in the first half of the 20th century. Though there is no universally accepted point of view about a clear-cut border line between the respective domains of phonetics and phonology as, indeed, we cannot talk about a phonological system ignoring the phonetic aspects it involves and, on the other hand, any phonetic approach should...
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...Lecture Plan # 1 Stylistics as a Branch of General Linguistics Литература 1. Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка. Учебник. - 3-е изд. М: Высшая школа, 1981. - 334 стр. 2. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка (стилистика декодирования). Л., "Просвещение", 1981. 295 стр. 3. Кухаренко В.А. Seminars in Style. M., 1971. 4. Скребнев Ю.М. Основы стилистики английского языка. М. «Высшая школа», 1994. Stylistics can be defined as a branch of modern linguistics devoted to the detailed analysis of literary style, or of the linguistic choices made by speakers and writers in non-literary contexts. (Chris Baldick Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms, 1996) According to I.R. Galperin, stylistics is a branch of general linguistics, which deals with the investigation of two independent tasks: 1. Stylistics studies the special media of language which are called stylistic devices and expressive means. Expressive means and stylistic devices form three large groups of phonetic, lexical, syntactical means and devices. Each group is further subdivided according to the principle, purpose and function of a mean or a device in an utterance. 2. Stylistics studies the types of texts which are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication and are called functional styles of language. Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological...
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...Phonostylistics as a branch of phonetics; its linkage with other linguistic disciplines. Extralinguistic factors causing phonetic modifications of speech. Definition and overall info. Pronunciation styles The term phonostylistics stands for the phonological processes conditioned by style, i.e. style-sensitive or style-dependent ones. A scale of styles may be set up in a variety of ways, still it is generally encompassed within the extremes of emphatic vs. informal, with formal in between. Emphatic style is well-exemplified by motherese and citation forms, informal styles include casual, colloquial, intimate, while a speech, a lecture, or a job interview are examples of a formal style. For the purposes of clarity, I will refer to a simplified binary distinction between formal vs. informal only. As far as the informal style is concerned, there exists the whole array of terms in the literature used to refer to approximately the same type of speech: fast, rapid, allegro, casual, connected, informal, real, spontaneous, or conversational. With respect to the primary style-differentiating criteria, the term casual seems to be the most adequate or, indeed, the least narrow or vague. The criteria are: tempo of speech and attention paid to speech. The criteria take on different values depending on the situation in which a speech act takes place (topic, aim, relation to the interlocutor, place of a conversation) and on the individual features of the speaker. Most commonly, exactly...
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...articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics. Phonetics is the study of speech sound and consists of articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics. Phonetics actually provides a language for people to discuss speech sound. Every language has a vocabulary. Articulatory phonetics is the production of speech sound. Auditory phonetics is the perception of speech sound. Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of the speech signal. All three are different, but play an important role in speech. “Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the material aspects of speech sound” (Phonetics 7).[1] The material aspects of sounds are made of physical production, transportation and comprehension of the sound. Another aspect of sound has to do with the function of sound in a language. The American English language does not transcribe all sounds in a one-to-one basis. “There are many instances, though, when we need an internationally comprehensible code for the detailed transcription of sounds, such as in linguistic research, as well as in foreign language teaching” (Phonetics 7).[2] The International Phonetic Association has created a special alphabet for this need. There are three different physical aspects of sound. These can be described as the “articulatory aspect of the speaker, the acoustic aspect of the channel, and the auditory aspect of the hearer” (Phonetics 7).[3] “Articulatory phonetics researches where and how sounds are originated...
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...Today What is Linguistics? Descriptive vs. Prescriptive rules/grammars Linguistic competence vs. performance Readings: 1.2-1.3 LING 200 -- McGarrity 1 What is Linguistics? The scientific study and analysis of human language. LING 200 -- McGarrity 2 Core Subfields Phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds (acoustic phonetics) and how they are made (articulatory phonetics) e.g., Park the car in Harvard yard. [pܒϪѢk ᾩђ kܒϪѢ گn hϪѢvѢd jϪѢd] [pܒa⍧k dђ kܒa⍧ n ha⍧v᭣d⍾ ja⍧d⍾] LING 200 -- McGarrity 3 Core Subfields Phonology: the study of how speech sounds pattern and how they are organized (i.e., the sound system) e.g., brick is a real Eng word blick isn’t an Eng word, but could be bnick isn’t an Eng word and couldn’t be LING 200 -- McGarrity 4 Core Subfields Morphology: the study of the formation of words. e.g., unlockable LING 200 -- McGarrity un-lock-able 5 Core Subfields Syntax: the study of the structure of sentences. e.g., She hit the man with a hammer. LING 200 -- McGarrity 6 Core Subfields Semantics: the study of meaning in language. “Inconceivable!” -- Vizzini, The Princess Bride Pragmatics: the study of how linguistic meaning depends on context. LING 200 -- McGarrity 7 Linguistics is NOT… … the study of writing …the study of how to speak properly LING 200 -- McGarrity 8 Grammar Prescriptive grammar Prescribes rules governing...
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...Chapter I THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS This chapter is concerned with the linguistic function of speech sounds, i. e. “segments of speech”. We are going to discuss here the definitions of the phoneme, methods used in establishing the phonemic structure of a language, the system of English phonemes, modifications of sounds in connected speech. 1.1. The Phoneme 17 1.1. The Phoneme 1.1.1. The definition of the phoneme To know how sounds are produced by speech organs it is not enough to describe and classify them as language units. When we talk about the sounds of a language, the term “sound” can be interpreted in two rather different ways. In the first place, we can say that [t] and [d] are two different sounds in English, [t] being fortis and [d] being lenis1 and we can illustrate this by showing how they contrast with each other to make a difference of meaning in a large number of pairs, such as tie – die, seat – seed, etc. But on the other hand if we listen carefully to the [t] in let us and compare it with the [t] in let them we can hear that the two sounds are also not the same, the [t] of let us is alveolar, while the [t] of let them is dental. In both examples the sounds differ in one articulatory feature only; in the second case the difference between the sounds has functionally no significance. It is perfectly clear that the sense of “sound” in these two cases is different. To avoid this ambiguity, the linguist uses two separate terms: “phoneme” is...
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...language and perception. Perception, in my point of view, is more intuitional and can be separated from language more easily than thoughts. In my abstract, I will display 4 evidences that show the effect of language on perceptions. Research Plan: My research question is “does language affect perception”. The sources I am planning to use are evidences/examples of how language influences on people’s perceptions (such as perception of colour, phonetic, appreciations and etc.) My tentative answer to this question is “yes, language does have effect on perceptions”. I will use the research results from the studies that I cited to show that language does affect people’s perception of the world. A short statement about my references: The following Sources are referred in my abstracts 1. Linguistic experience alter phonetic perception in infant by 6 month of age http://pages.pomona.edu/~rt004747/lgcs11read/KuhlEA92.pdf *This article is written by linguists. This article studies the influence of linguistic experiences on infant’s phonetic perception and uses it to explain people speak different mother tongues...
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...(drama: about working through a speech impediment—phonetics/speech pathology/sociolinguistics) • The Gods Must Be Crazy (comedy: includes lots of a natively spoken click language—phonetics/typology) • Children of a Lesser God (drama: about deaf culture and American Sign Language—typology/sociolinguistics) • Rango (comedy: about creating identity through speech patterns—sociolinguistics/discourse analysis/phonetics) • Snowcake (comedy/drama: about what can go hilariously/profoundly wrong when pragmatic implicatures are not used/understood—pragmatics/morphology) • Kenneth Branaugh’s Much Ado About Nothing (comedy: a sample of Shakespearean English—pay attention to the ways in which language has changed in the past 400 years—history of the English language/diachronic linguistics /phonology/lexicon/syntax/semantics) • Kenneth Branaugh’s Hamlet (tragedy: as above—history of the English language/diachronic linguistics/phonology/lexicon/syntax/semantics) • Driving Miss Daisy (comedy/drama: class differences in language use and pragmatic implicature—sociolinguistics/pragmatics) • Bridge on the River Kwai (drama: learning to communicate across a language/culture/power barrier—sociolinguistics/discourse analysis) • The Great Debaters (drama: using language to inform/persuade/manipulate—semantics/pragmatics/discourse analysis/rhetoric) • My Fair Lady (musical: about standard accents and class structure—sociolinguistics/phonetics) 2. Attend class the day the TA is teaching (TA—take...
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...Historical linguists study basically the change of languages over time (diachronic change) and examine how languages were used in the past and how they relate to one another . Eg. Old English Middle English Modern English Sociolinguists study the origins or the causes of language changes and explain how society and changes in speech communities influence language and generate sociolects . Eg. Spanish spoken by an upper class man/woman in Madrid and Spanish spoken by a working class man/woman in Andalucía. Language change is the phenomenon whereby phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features of language vary over time Language Change Causes * Economy The principle of least effort is one of the basic and most used explanations for many language changes . Eg. She + is = she's; we + have + been = we've been; clothes /kloʊðɪz/ - /kloʊz/; fifth /fifθs/ /fifs/. * Analogy A linguistic process that reduces words which are perceived as irregular by making them similar to other regular forms . Eg. Semantic historically “livid” meant “pale”, its similar sound with “vivid” has led to analogical semantic change. Morphological the verb “thrive” (thrive-throve-thriven) is on its way to becoming a regular verbs (thrive-thrived-thrived). Language contact Languages come into contact with each other. The most common way that languages influence each other is the exchange of words especially if there is lexical a gap in the language ....
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...* "[O]ne of the functions of phonetic stress is to make words understandable. This kind of stress, known as word-level stress, is actually part of a word's pronunciation. It may also serve to differentiate words that are similar. For example, We're going to record a record, the two similar words are stressed differently so that the first record is stressed on the second syllable (vowel reduction in the first syllable also assists in helping us to assign stress to the second syllable), whereas the second record is stressed on the first syllable (with vowel reduction in the second syllable). All words of more than one syllable have a prominent or stressed syllable. If we pronounce a word with appropriate stress, people will understand us; if we use the wrong stress placement, we run the risk of being misunderstood. "Phrase or sentence stress is tied to meaning, and this is the second function of stress. As we focus a camera on some item of interest, phonetic stress helps us focus our listener's attention on what is most important in our message." (Harold T. Edwards, Applied Phonetics: The Sounds of American English, 3rd ed. Thomson, 2003) * "Stresses tend to recur at regular intervals. But the sound pattern of English does not make it an overriding necessity to adjust the lengths of syllables so as to enforce complete regularity. The interval between stresses is affected by the number of syllables within the stress group, by the number and type of vowels and consonants...
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...What is linguistics? Language is central to our human nature, and linguistics is the systematic study of human language. Although on the face of it there is huge variation among the world's languages, linguists not only describe the diverse characteristics of individual languages but also seek to discover the deeper properties which all languages share. These common properties may give us an insight into the structure of the human mind. Part of the appeal of linguistics is that it draws on methods and knowledge from an unusually wide range of scholarship and transcends the usual subject boundaries. For instance, the study of meaning draws on work by philosophers, whereas the part of our course concentrating on the sounds of speech takes place in our Phonetics Laboratory. Here computers are used to display and analyse the speech signal using methods from physics and engineering. This variety is what makes linguistics fascinating: at one moment you might be poring over a medieval text for evidence of how the grammar of a language has changed, and the next, learning about how the larynx creates sound energy for speech. The flexibility of language as a tool for communication depends on combining smaller elements into larger structures. Language does this at several 'levels', and the description of languages involves different levels of analysis. Syntax describes the combination of words to form sentences; morphology describes the building of words from components such as roots...
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...Meaningless sounds full of meaning Diego Ramos People happen to know what someone else means when they are talking; however, most of them do not comprehend what words are: how they take a role to become meaningful and how they can change. As a matter of fact, they can change in a total different word or just the way they are pronounced; thus, this is something that is related to the phoneme. The phoneme has material to talk about and throughout this work, one can see what the definition of what this one is; in addition, the phenomenon of the allophone is explained and treated; also, the way of how not understanding something can affect the way either to communicate or to express one’s self is seen. At the end, but not the least important, how an “insignificant sound” (as some people might say) can affect completely meaning of a word is mentioned, too. All of these topics has something to do with the phoneme and that is something that shall be taken into account in this essay. First, it would be convenient to define what a phoneme is, and that is why in this piece of work we have got three different definitions in order to summarise the basic ideas and points one can say about this term. In order to start defining, there is Skaderar’s definition: in Skandera’s definition, phonemes have a meaning in the speakers language competence and performance, and they are the smallest and distinctive unit in speech (Skandera & Burleigh, 2005, p. 31). At the same time, there is the...
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