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自考“管理会计”笔记第一章 第一章 现代管理会计的形成和发展 第一节 财务会计与管理会计是企业会计的两个重要领域 1. 财务会计与管理会计,是企业会计的两个重要领域。 2.财务会计主要是通过定期的财务报表,为企业外部同企业有经济利益关系的各个社会集团服务。注意:是为企业外部服务; 3.管理会计不同于财务会计,它主要不是为适应企业外部有关方面的需要,而是侧重于为企业内部的经营管理服务。注意:是为企业内部服务。 现代管理会计的形成和发展 管理会计从传统的、单一的会计系统中分离出来,成为与财务会计并列的独立领域,大致包括以下两个大的阶段:一是执行性管理会计阶段(本世纪初到50年代);二是决策型管理会计(本世纪50年代以后)。这时间很好记忆,正好是世纪中叶。 现代管理会计把决策会计放在首位。 第二节 现代管理会计的主要特点(会选择,并作简答题准备) 一、侧重于为企业内部的经营管理服务这是现代管理会计的一个主要特点,也是管理会计的区别于财务会计的一个重要标志。(比较确切的说法,应该是:不论管理会计和财务会计,都同时为企业内部、外部的有关人员服务,只是侧重点不同。) 二、方式方法更为灵活多样 管理会计不同于财务会计,它主要是为企业内部改善经营管理提供有用的信息,它在许多方面(不是所有方面)可以不受社会公认的指导性会计原则约束,因此方式方法更为灵活多样。 三、同时兼顾企业生产经营的全局和局部两个方面 财务会计主要是以企业作为一个整体,来考核企业的财务状况和经营成果; 而管理会计既要面向整体,又要考虑局部。(如责任会计) 四、面向未来 财务会计一般只反映实际完成的事项,是一种历史性的描述。是过去式。 管理会计为了有效地服务于企业内部的经营管理,必须面向未来。 五、数学方法的广泛应用 财务会计也要应用到一些数学方法,但范围比较小,一般只涉及到初等数学; 管理会计却越来越广泛应用到现代数学方法。
自考“管理会计”笔记第二章
第二章 现代管理会计的特性、对象、方法和职能作用 第一节 现代管理会计的特性 一、从学科的性质看(综合学科) 是本世纪50年代以来发展起来的一现代管理科学为基础的综合性交*学科。 二、从工作的性质看(决策支持系统) 现代管理会计是管理信息系统的一个子系统,是决策支持系统的重要组成部分。 第二节 现代管理会计的对象 现金流动具有最大的综合性,他的流入与流出既有数量上的差别,也有时间上的差别,通过对现金流通的分析可以为企业改善生产经营、提高经济效益提供重要的综合性的信息。因此现代管理会计的对象是现金流动。 第三节 现代管理会计的方法 一、现代管理会计基本方法的主要特点 财务会计所用的方法,是属于描述性的方法。 现代管理会计所用的方法,是属于分析性的方法。例如:成本性态分析法、本量利分析法、边际分析法、成本效益分析法、折现的现金流量法。 二、现代管理会计方法上的精密化,标志着它从描述性科学向精密科学发展 从简单到复杂,从初等数学到初等数学的应用。标志从描述性科学向精密科学的发展。 第四节 现代管理会计的职能作用 现代管理会计的职能作用:解析过去,控制现在和筹划未来。这三种职能并非孤立存在,他们结合在一起,综合地发挥作用,形成一种综合性的职能。
自考“管理会计”笔记第三章
第三章 成本的概念及其分类 第一节 成本的概念及分类(会选择) 一、成本按经济用途的分类 企业的成本按照其经济用途可以区分为制造成本以非制造成本两大类。 (一)制造成本由三个成本项目中构成: 1.直接材料 2.直接工资 3.制造费用 其中直接材料、直接工资两者合称为主要成本,将直接人工和制造费用加在一起,统称为加工成本。 (二)非制造成本一般可以细分为: 1.行销或销售成本 2.管理成本 二、成本按性态分类(重点) (一)成本的性态 是指成本总额的变动与产量之间的依存关系。按照成本与产量的依存关系,可将成本分为固定成本、变动成本和半变动成本三类。(掌握其概念,可分为哪三类成本。) 1.固定成本:是指在一定的产量范围内与产量增减变化没有直接联系的费用。 理解固定成本的前提条件:在一定的产量范围内理解固定成本对产品成本的影响,也就是说固定成本的特点。在一定的产量范围内,固定成本总额不变,而随着产品产量增加,单位产品所承担的固定成本将会下降。 要求能根据其特点画出图形,并会选择正确的图形。 固定成本通常又可以分: 1)酌量性固定成本:是企业根据经营方针由高层领导确定的一定期间的预算额而形成的固定成本。理解其中的预算额,既然是预算,则可以通过领导的决策可以改变其金额。主要包括研究开发费、广告宣传费、职工培训费等项目,要求会选择。 2)约束性固定成本:主要是经营能力的成本,企业的经营能力一旦形成,在短期内难以作出重大改变,因此叫做约束性固定成本,例如折旧,保险费、财产税等项目。要求作出选择。 2.变动成本 从产品的单位成本来看,变动成本不受产品产量变动的影响。能够画出产品与总变动成本和每单位变动成本的关系图。 3.半变动成本 是指总成本虽然受产量变动的影响,但是其变动的幅度并不同产量的变化保持严格的比例。它同时包括固定成本与变动成本两种因素,所以是属于混合成本。 有两种表现形式: 1)半变动成本有一初始量,这类似于固定成本,在这基础上,产量的增加,成本也会增加,有类似与变动成本。例如机械设备的维护费,电话费。 2)半变动成本随产量的增长呈阶梯式增长,称为阶梯式成本。其特点是,产量在一定范围内增长,其发生额不变;但产量增长超过一定限度,其发生额突然上升,然后再产量增长的一定限度内又保持不变。可以画出图形加深印象。 三、成本按可控性分类。 凡成本的发生,属于这个单位和部门权责范围内,能为这个单位所控制的,叫做这个单位的可控成本。反之,成本发生,不属于这一单位权责范围内,不能为这个单位加以控制的,叫做这个单位的不可控成本。 四、成本按照可追踪性分类 按照生产成本可追踪性可以分为直接成本和间接成本两大类。 直接成本是指能直接计入和归属各种产品成本的费用。例如原料及主要材料。 间接成本是指不能直接计入,而需先进行归集,然后按照一定的标准分配计入各种产品成本的费用。如,制造费用。 五、成本按照可盘存性分类 成本的可盘存性是指一定期间内发生的成本是否计入产品成本,并作为资产结转下期。据此,一定期间内发生的成本可分为期间成本和产品成本两类。 六、成本按经营决策的不同要求分类 (一)差别成本 广义差别成本,是指不同方案之间的预计成本的差额的。 狭义的差别成本,是指由于生产能力利用程度的不同而形成的成本差别。 结合教材的例子充分理解生产能力利用程度不同而形成的成本差别P37. (二)机会成本 机会成本并非实际支出,也不计入帐册,但在决策时应作为一个现实的因素加以考虑。 (三)边际成本 边际成本的实际计量,就是产量增加或减少一个单位所引起的成本变动。很明显,管理会计中的单位变动成本和差量成本都是边际成本这一理论概念的具体表现形式。(要求会选择那些是边际成本) 在经营决策分析中,边际成本可以用来判断产量的增减,在经济上是否合算。 判断的依据是:当企业的生产能力有剩余时,只要增加产量的是销售单价高于单位的边际成本,也会使得企业利润增加或亏损减少。(作为以后计算题的依据) (四)付现成本 付现成本是指所确定的某项决策方案中,需要以现金支付的成本。 掌握付现成本的计算:某企业有旧设备一台,变现价值为1,500元,先准备购置一台价值30,000元的新设备与之替代。其付现成本=30,000-1,500=28,500 案例分析的依据:在经营决策中,特别是当企业的资金处于紧张状态时,支付能力受到限制的情况下,往往会选择付现成本最小的方案来替代中成本最低的方案。例如我们按揭购房,就是选择付现成本最低,但总的成本高的方案。 当资金紧张时刻,特别要将现金支出成本作为考虑的重点。 (五)应负成本 应负成本是机会成本的一种表现形式。(机会成本有那些表现形式,选择题)它不是企业实际支出,也不要记账,是使用某种经济资源的代价。 例如使用自有资金购买的机器设备,从而丧失了它利息收益,利息就是应负成本的一种。 (六)重置成本 重置成本是指按照现在的市场价格购买目前所持有的某项资产所需支付的成本。 (七)沉没成本 沉没成本是指过去发生、无法收回的成本。这种成本与当前决策无关,是属于无关成本。(注意) (八)可避免成本 (九)不可避免成本 (十)可延缓成本 (十一)不可延缓成本 (十二)相关成本与非相关成本(要求会选择) 相关成本是指与决策有关的未来成本,例如差别成本、机会成本、应负成本、重置成本、可避免成本。 非相关成本是指过去已经发生、与某一特定决策方案没有直接联系的成本。例如不可避免成本、沉没成本。 第二节 半变动成本的分解 按照成本与产量的依存关系,可将成本划分为固定成本、变动成本和半变动成本三类。由于半变动成本实际上是混合成本,它同时包括了固定成本和变动成本两种因素。因此在实际工作中,还需要对半变动成本进行分解,将它分解为固定成本和变动成本。(分解成什么?) 对半变动成本分解为常用的方法有:高低点法、散布图法、回归直线法。(哪三种方法?) 一、高低点法(重点) 基本原理是:各期的总成本或混合成本都可以用成本性态模型y=a+bx表示。(即混合成本=固定成本+变动成本) 解题思路:在数据表中找出最高的产量和最低点产量以及他们各自所对应的成本。分别用以下公式反映: 1)Y(H)=a+bX(H)高点成本总额 2)Y(L)=a+bX(L)低点成本总额 由1)-2)可得出b的数值,进而再求出A值。 所以,只要您的理解高低点法的基本原理,您就不需要去记教材上的公式。 高低点法适用的前提条件: 1)高低点法所取得用的成本数据应能代表企业生产经营活动的正常情况。 2)通过高低点法分解而求得的成本公式,只能是用于相关范围内的情况。(即最高点与最低点之间) 二、散布图法(了解,其数值会因人而异,但由于用到了所有的数据,所以他的精确程度要比高低点法高) 三、回归直线法(重点) 这是一种较为精确的方法。(理解,从表面上即数据用得最多,计算量最大) 基本原理是:各期的总成本或混合成本都可以用成本性态模型y=a+bx表示。(即混合成本=固定成本+变动成本) 公式推导:从y=a+bx推出Σy=n.a+bΣx再推出Σxy=aΣx+bΣx2. 理解这一过程,能写出这两个公式,就能求出a与b值,从而得出y=a+bx这一成本公式。这样,教材上的a等于什么和b等于什么就不要去记了。 回归法直线法的使用的条件:x与y要保持线性关系。 三种方法的比较:精确程度的排列,散布图法的特点,高低点法公式的适用范围。
自考“管理会计”笔记第四章
第四章 变动成本法 第一节 变动成本法与完全成本法的区别(要求理解,选择题常出) 变动成本法与完全成本法主要有如下三个方面的区别:P55(要求理解,选择题常出) 一、产品成本组成内容不同 安全成本计算,产品成本包括了直接材料、直接人工、变动性制造费用和固定性制造费用; 变动成本计算,其产品成本只包括直接材料、直接人工和变动性制造费用。对固定性制造费用不计入产品成本,而是作为期间成本;全额列入损益表,从当期的销售收中直接扣减。 (两者相比较,变动成本法比完全成本法少了固定性的制造费用)从目前来看,这两 种方法并不能相互代替,而是同时使用。 二、在“产成品”与“在产品”存货估价方面的区别 采用完全成本法时,由于它将全部的生产成本(包括变动和固定的生产成本)在已销产品、库存产成品和在产品之间分摊,所以期末产成品和在产品存货中不仅包含了变动的生产成本,而且还包含了一部分的固定成本(如机器设备的折旧等固定成本)。 采用变动成本法时,由于只将变动成本在已销产品、库存产成品和在产品之间进行分配,固定成本没有结转至下期,全额直接从本期销售收入中扣减,所以期末产成品和在产品存货并没有负担固定成本,其金额必然低于采用完全成本法时的估价。(注意会选择判断) 三、在盈亏计算方面的区别(要求理解,选择题常出) A:产销平衡的情况下 按完全成本法确定的净收益=按变动成本法所确定的净收益 (原因是:产销平衡的情况下,按完全成本法计算的产品销售成本中包括了本期所有的固定成本,将它全部转入本期损益,这样,正好与变动成本法直接将固定成本作为期间费用全额直接从本期收入中扣减的做法是一样的。) B:本期生产量是大于销售量 (P60) 按完全成本法确定的净收益>按变动成本法所确定的净收益 (原因是:按完全成本法下,生产量大于销售量下,还有部分存货作为资产留在企业内部,在存货的价值中,还包括了一部分的固定性的制造费用。换句话说,也就是本期销售成本和期间费用之和比变动成本法少转了部分固定性的制造费用。所以按完全成本法确定的净收益>按变动成本法所确定的净收益) C:本期生产量小于销售量 按完全成本法确定的净收益

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...focus inward on the organization’s needs instead of outward (the customer’s needs). • Product is aimed at everyone. • Firms want to profit through maximizing sales volume. • Promotion to achieve goals. 2. Describe some of the characteristics of a firm that would follow a marketing orientation. Marketing orientation is “a philosophy that assumes that a sale does not depend on an aggressive sales force but rather than on a customer’s decision to purchase a product; it is synonymous with the marketing concept.” • Unlike sales orientation, a firm would focus outward on the customers wants and needs. • The goal of a firm is to satisfy customers wants and needs and delivering superior value. • The target is specific groups of people. • Where sales orientation profits by sales volume, marketing orientation firms profit with good feedback from customers or customer satisfaction. • It’s more about marketing and less about selling (less persuasion). • Firms identify what customers want and have businesses give them what they want efficiently. 3. In what ways does McDonald's embody both a marketing and a societal marketing orientation? Do some internet research if necessary. McDonald’s embodies a marketing orientation...

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...customer-focused and heavily committed to marketing. These companies share a passion for understanding and satisfying customer needs in well-defined target markets. They motivate everyone in the organization to help build lasting customer relationships based on creating value. Marketing is just as important for non-profit-making organizations as it is for profit-making ones. It is very important to realize that at the heart of marketing is the customer. It is the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying consumer requirements profitability. Background The term ‘‘marketing’’ is derived from the word ‘‘market’’, which refers to a group of sellers and buyers that cooperate to exchange goods and services. The modern concept of marketing evolved during and after the revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries. During that period, the proliferation of goods and services, increased worker specialization and technological advances in transportation, refrigeration and other factors that facilitate the transfer of goods over long distances resulted in the need for more advance market mechanisms and selling techniques. But it was not until the 1930s that companies began to place a greater emphasis on advertising and promoting their products and began striving to tailor their goods to specific consumer needs. By the 1950s, many larger companies were sporting entire marketing departments charged with devising and implementing marketing strategies that would complement...

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...Marketing MKT 421 Marketing According to “American Marketing Association” (2013), “Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customer, clients, partners, and society at large.” The American Marketing Society has grown to be the largest marketing associations in the world. The members work, teach, and study in the field of marketing across the globe. Another definition of marketing is according to “About.com Investors” (2013), “Marketing is an activity. Marketing activities and strategies result in making products available that satisfy customers while making profits for the companies that offer those products.” Organizations success lies in marketing and it is the heart of the success. The marketing introduces a product or service to potential customers. An organization can offer the best service or product in the industry but the potential customers would not know about it without marketing. Sales could crash and organizations may close without marketing. For a business to succeed the product or service that is provided needs to be known to the potential buyers. Getting the word out is important part of marketing in any organizational success. Product or service awareness is created by marketing strategies. If marketing is not used the potential customers will never be aware of the organizational offerings and the organization will not have the opportunity to succeed...

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...Abstract In the world of today with rude competition everywhere, customers’ expectations have become higher than ever. It is not the customers who come towards the products but it is the products which should make their way to the customers. And for this, only competitive businesses that are able to stimulate customers’ interests survive in the market. Therefore firms need to increase customers’ awareness about their products or services to be able to pull and encourage them to engage in purchase of their products. And as such, the promotional mix used by a company is really important for this task. The promotional mix in itself is very broad, consisting of various tools, like advertising, personal selling, direct marketing, public relation and sales promotion. To make the optimum use of these tools, marketers usually select them, depending on their budget and objectives, as well as the sector in which they operate (Kotler & Armstrong 1997). As such, research has been conducted on the use of promotional mix and research questions and objectives have been set. The methodology which will be used has been devised. We shall be doing a descriptive study through a survey questionnaire, in which there will be open as well as close ended questions and the questionnaire will be administered through personal interview that is direct, face-to-face. The sample size will be 100 persons and will all be customers of J Kalachand & Co Ltd. After the research, we will be...

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...oriented philosophy is so important. The phrase market-oriented is used in marketing conversations as an adjective describing a company with a marketing orientation. Market orientation more describes the company's approach to doing business. Market-oriented defines the company itself. If a company is market-oriented, its board and executive leadership believe that the best way to succeed is to prioritize the marketplace above products. This usually goes over well with customers, but the company also must have adequate research and development to provide what the market wants. Hence, a market-oriented organization is one whose actions are consistent with the marketing concept. Difference Between Marketing Orientation & Market Oriented by Neil Kokemuller, Demand Media http://smallbusiness.chron.com/difference-between-marketing-orientation-market-oriented-14387.html Marketing is a management process and management support for marketing concept is very important element in success. If a company wants to be successful then it is market oriented. Marketing involves identifying the customer requirements and estimate the customer requirements in future. It requires planning which is very important process of marketing. To satisfy the needs the business should provide benefits – offering right marketing at right time at right place. Generally market based companies adopt strategic level marketing that defines the mission and long term objectives of the company. Market oriented...

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