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PART A (15 道选择题)

1. FREDERICK TAYLOR:Scientific Management (Lecture 1): a scientific approach to management in which all tasks in organisations are in-depth analysed, routinised, divided and standardised, instead of using rules-of thumb.

科学管理(Scientific management)是借由重新设计工作流程,对员工与工作任务之间的关系进行系统性的研究,以及透过标准化与客观分析等方式,以使效率与生产量极大化。[1]
19世纪末期,美国人弗里德里克·温斯罗·泰勒提出来的管理理论,因此又称为“泰勒制”,是西方管理学理论的开创性肇端,在很多方面有所应用。 泰勒是第一位提出科学管理观念的人,因此被尊称为科学管理之父,他详细为记录每个工作的步骤及所需时间,设计出最有效的工作方法,并对每个工作制定一定的工作标准量,归划为一个标准的工作流程;将人的动作与时间,以最经济的方式达成最高的生产量,因此又被称为机械模式。

2.Communication modle (Lecture 5)

* Sender – person wishing to share information with some other person * Message – what information to communicate * Encoding – sender translates the message into symbols or language * Noise – refers to anything that hampers any stage of the communication process * Receiver – person or group for which the message is intended * Medium – pathway through which an encoded message is transmitted to a receiver * Decoding - critical point where the receiver interprets and tries to make sense of the message

3. Is team a group?
考点:What’s the different between team or groups? (Lecture 7)

* Group: People riding on a bus
Blonde women aged between 20 and 30 years of age
Members of a football team
Audience in a theatre
People sheltering in a shop doorway from rain
Group and Team 虽然都是指一群人,但是按照组织行为学的观点来看——Group and Team 是不同的两个概念,具体的表现为: Team 主要在于强调目标的共享以及个体之间的相互支持和合作,但是 Group则更强调按照领导的要求进行相关的工作。
建立一个 Group 是非常简单的一件事情,例如直接按照员工的工作年限,性别,年龄等等指标进行分类既可以得到相应的 Group。但是,打造一个 Team 则困难的多,这是因为 Team 的成员的挑选是根据个人差异化和互补性的能力而非个人中的共性。
为了达到共同的目标,Group 内部可以利用各种讨论的形式汇集个体的智慧;但是 Team 成员则只能够利用其自身的能力完成任务
打造一个 Team 要比建立一个 Group 困难的多——具体是因为 Group 中成员的共性在其形成过程中扮演者重要的作用,而在 Team 中的个体共性是没有该作用的。
与 Team 成员的工作方式不同,Group 成员的工作需要严格按照领导的要求展开,即牺牲了主动性。
Team 成员的离开对于整个目标的达成会造成很大的影响,但是 Group 成员的离开则不会有这么大的影响

Paul Hunter说 可能的问题就是 以下哪个是TEAM是一个GROUP

Two characteristics distinguish teams from groups 1. Intensity with which team members work together 2. Presence of a specific, overriding team goal or objective

4.Adams’ Equity Theory (Lecture 13) Stacy Adams (1963, 1965): * We are motivated to act in situations which we perceive to be inequitable or unfair * A process theory which argues that perception of unfairness leads to tension, which then motivates the individual to resolve that unfairness * Motivation is a function of fairness in social exchanges * 公平理论的基本观点是,当一个人做出了成绩并取得了报酬以后,他不仅关心自己所得报酬的绝对量,而且关心自己所得报酬的相对量。因此,他要进行种种比较来确定自己所获报酬是否合理,比较的结果将直接影响今后工作的积极性。

5.Hand refesr and Car’s maker (Ford Motor Industry ) it apply whose idea (Tayolorism and its application in Ford Motor Industry) Moddle: Video on Tayolorism and its application in Ford Motor Industry
费雷德里克·泰罗在20世纪初创建了科学管理理论体系,他这套体系被人称为“泰罗制”,泰罗制的主要内容包括:
(1)管理的根本目的在于提高效率。
(2)制定工作定额。
(3)选择最好的工人。
(4)实施标准化管理。
(5)实施刺激性的付酬制度。
(6)强调雇主与工人合作的“精神革命”。
(7)主张计划职能与执行职能分开。
(8)实行职能工长制。
(9)管理控制上实行例外原则。由于泰罗制的实施,当时的工厂管理开始从经验管理过渡到科学管理阶段。 泰罗认为企业管理的根本目的在于提高劳动生产率,他在《科学管理》一书中说过:“科学管理如同节省劳动的机器一样,其目的在于提高每一单位劳动的产量”。而提高劳动生产率的目的是为了增加企业的利润或实现利润最大化的目标。 泰罗科学管理的特点是从每一个工人抓起,从每一件工具、每一道工序抓起,在科学实验的基础上,设计出最佳的工位设置、最合理的劳动定额、标准化的操作方法、最适合的劳动工具。例如他在某钢铁公司进行的搬运生铁和铲铁试验中,就具体规定了工人所铲物资的轻重不同,所用的铲子大小也应该不同。为此,他专门设立了一个工具室,存有10种不同的铲子,供工人们在完成不同作业时使用。 泰罗的科学管理系统将工人的潜能发挥到无以复加的程度, 有人形容,在实行泰罗制的工厂里,找不出一个多余的工人,每个工人都像机器一样一刻不停地工作。 泰罗制将整个社会的生产效率提高到前所未有的程度,但是当时却遭到来自各方面的非议,工会和社会工作者说泰罗制把工人变成了奴隶,让资本家最大限度地榨取血汗,而一些依靠经验不学无术的管理人员则抱怨科学管理取代了他们的作用,让他们面临失业。尽管有这样那样的不同意见,但是泰罗制还是以不可遏制的势头在全世界推广开来。 在泰罗以后,科学管理理论得到不断补充和完善,但是泰罗制的局限性也逐渐显现出来。泰罗理论的前提是把作为管理对象的“人”看作是“经济人”,利益驱动是该学派用以提高效率的主要法宝。科学管理学派研究的重点是管理的科学性、严密性和纪律性,很少去考虑人的因素。

6. Process of perception (Lecture 15)

* Perception * process through which people select, organize, and interpret sensory input to give meaning and order to the world around them * Influenced by people’s personalities, values, attitudes and moods as well as their experience and knowledge 网上资料 * The perceptual process is the sequence of psychological steps that a person uses to organize and interpret information from the outside world. The steps are: * Objects are present in the world. * A person observes. * The person uses perception to select objects. * The person organizes the perception of objects. * The person interprets the perceptions. * The person responds.

7. Ohio state leadership grid (Lecture17) * Ohio State Studies: two critical dimensions of behaviour: * Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers; behavior indicating that a manager trusts, respects, and cares about subordinates * Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group members should be doing; behavior that managers engage in to ensure that work gets done, subordinates perform their jobs acceptably, and the organization is efficient and effective.

8. mean of Encoding in communication process (Lecture 5)

* Encoding – sender translates the message into symbols or language

信息的输出者就是信息的来源,他必须充分了解接受者的情况,以选择合适的沟通渠道以利于接受者的理解。要顺利的完成信息的输出,必须对编码(Encoding)和解码(Decoding)两个概念有一个基本的了解。编码是指将想法、认识及感觉转化成信息的过程。解码是指信息的接受者将信息转换为自己的想法或感觉。 在从事编码的过程中,注意以下几个方面有利于提高编码的正确性: ·相关性 信息必须与接受者所知道的范围相关联,如此才可能使信息为接受者所了 解。所有信息必须以一种对接受者有意义或有价值的方式传送出去。 ·简明性 尽量将信息转变为最简明的形式,因为越是简明的方式,越可能为接受者 所了解。 ·组织性 将信息组织成有条理的若干重点,可以方便接受者了解及避免接受者承担 过多的负担。 ·重复性 主要是在口语的沟通中,重复强调重点有利于接受者的了解和记忆。 ·集中性 将焦点集中在信息的几个重要层次上,以避免接受者迷失在一堆杂乱无章 的信息之中。在口语沟通中,可凭借特别的语调、举止、手势或面部表情来表达这些重点。若以文字沟通方式,则可采用划线或强调语气突出内容的重要性。

9. Legitimate power (Lecture 17) * The authority that a manager has by virtue of his or her position in the firm. *

* Legitimate authority does not come under this heading. * Managers reprimanding or disciplining employees; offering constructive criticism or using formal authority to control or coerce others * Properly managed these techniques help shape future behaviours, improve performance and potentially protect employee from future sanctions

* 合法权力(Legitimate power)是代表一个人在正式层级中占据某一职位所相应得到的一种权力: * 通过职权获得的权力. * 如聘用或解聘员工的权力. * 用于对员工行为施加影响,使其按照组织的要求工作

10. typical managerial mistakes (课件里找不到 网上找的)
1. Not Providing Feedback
2. Not Making Time for Your Team
3. Being Too "Hands-Off"
4. Being Too Friendly
5. Failing to Define Goals
6. Misunderstanding Motivation
7. Hurrying Recruitment
8. Not "Walking the Walk"
9. Not Delegating
10. Misunderstanding Your Role

11. frustration-regression & hypothesis (satisfied need) (Lecture 10)

The theory that frustration often leads to behavior characteristic of a much earlier period of life and was proposed in 1941 by U.S. psychologists Roger G. Barker, Tamara Dembo and Kurt Lewin.

* if the gratification of a higher-order need is being blocked, the desire to satisfy a lower need increases * Progression down the hierarchy is also possible
挫折-倒退假说
即个体遭受挫折后,丧失追求目标的动机,对挫折情境以较幼稚的依赖行为来应对困境。其表现形式: * 1)冷漠,即个体对挫折情境持漠不关心的态度。这是比攻击更为复杂的一种反应,原因很多,如长期遭受挫折、挫折情境表明已无希望、以往体验过的攻击无效,或因攻击而招致更多的痛苦等,故表现出冷漠。 * 2)幻想,即个体遭受挫折后企图以自己想象的虚构情境来应对挫折,借以脱离现实。白日梦就是常见的幻想之一。 * 3)倒退(或退化),即个体遭受挫折后表现出与自己年龄不相称的幼稚行为,亦即倒退回到原来较低的心理发展水平。如有了新弟妹的四五岁儿童,常表现出尿床、吮手指、啼哭等退化行为,以引起承认的注意,安慰和爱抚。承认遭受挫折时有人蒙头大睡、装病不起;而有妇女受挫爱啼哭,或跑回娘家等均属正常人的幼稚退化行为。神经症和精神病患者也有倒退行为,如癔症患者可退化到婴儿期,表现为“童样痴呆”,疑病患者以为自己有“病”就可以得到其他人的帮助,甚至可以像儿童依赖父母那样依赖别人,精神分裂症患者的退化甚至可倒退到“子宫内生活”状态。 * 4)受暗示性,即个体遭受挫折后易感性增强,容易盲目地相信别人,盲从地执行某人的指令等。

12. Gold setting theory (Lecture 14)
Goal-setting theory * Main advocate, Edwin Locke (1968, 1975; Latham and Yukl, 1975) argues that ‘goal-setting is more appropriately viewed as a motivational technique * Technique relies on a series of propositions which helps us to explain and to predict work behaviour, so it is entitled to be described as theory * Defining goal setting theory * A process theory which argues that work motivation is influenced by goal difficulty, goal specificity and knowledge of results
目标设定理论(英语:Goal-setting Theory)是一个由美国马里兰大学管理学兼心理学教授爱德温·洛克(Edwin A. Locke)提出的动机理论。研究发现,外来的刺激,例如奖励、工作反馈、监督压力等,都是通过目标来影响动机的。目标设定理论认为,工作目标的设定会直接影响到工作表现,目标本身就具有激励作用,能把个人的需要转变为动机,使人的行为向特定方向努力,并将自己的行为结果与既定的目标相对照,及时进行调整和修正,从而能实现目标。一个明确、具有挑战性的目标,配合合适的反馈,可以令个人的工作表现获得更大的提升。
目标设定理论的相关研究指出,设定的目标具有以下特性时,会有较好的激励效果。
1. 目标定义明确:目标的定义包括衡量目标是否达成的标准,完成的时间等。 2. 目标挑战性适当:设定的目标具有一定挑战性,但其难度又不超过个人的承受范围,这样的目标可以产生激发潜力的效果,反之,太简单的任务容易让人觉得无聊,太难的工作则让人有挫折感。 3. 回馈:人们不仅应有目标,更应定期地得到有关这些目标的达成状况。

Goal-setting theory - main propositions * Challenging goals lead to higher levels of performance * Specific goals lead to higher levels of performance * Participation in goal setting can improve performance * Knowledge of results of past performance – feedback – is necessary for effective goal achievement
Evidence from Goal-Setting Research
Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance. * Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to achieve. * Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance because people begin to experience failure.
Specific Difficult Goals May or May Not Lead to Higher Performance * Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. * Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for solving these types of problems.
Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. * Goals and feedback should be used together.
Participative, assigned, and self-set goals are equally effective. * Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach. * Different methods work in different situations.
Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes. * Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to their goals. * Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are not committed to their goals.
Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation. * Employees may not help each other. * Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity goals. * Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.

13. Corporate Social Responsibility (Lecuture 20) 整个20都是

企业社会责任(英文:Corporate social responsibility,简称CSR),是指企业在其商业运作里对其利害关系人应付的责任。企业社会责任的概念是基于商业运作必须符合可持续发展的想法,企业除了考虑自身的财政和经营状况外,也要加入其对社会和自然环境所造成的影响的考量。 利害关系人是指所有可以影响、或会被企业的决策和行动所影响的个体或群体,包括:员工、顾客、供应商、社区团体、母公司或附属公司、合作伙伴、投资者和股东。

利害关系人理论(Stakeholder theory)是一个组织管理和商业道德的理论,用于解决组织管理中的道德和价值问题。这一理论是1984年由R·爱德华·弗里曼(R. Edward Freeman)在《Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach》一书中提出,他将利害关系人的概念与理论带入企业管理的领域内,首先他界定“利害关系人”是在一个组织中会影响组织目标或被组织影响的团体或个人,因此,他认为一位企业的管理者如果想要企业能永续的发展,那么这个企业的管理者必需制定一个能符合各种不同利害关系人的策略才行。
在弗里曼之后,萨瓦奇及其同僚在1991年发展出从公司的董事会成员、雇员及社区代表等三方利害关系人的观点来提出公司的经营策略,因此从企业的观点来看,一个企业除了注重股东的权益外,必需同时关注员工、顾客、社区以及所有有与企业有关的个人或团体才行,类似以企业拥有者为核心的一个同心圆,层层向外扩散。

Why: * Demonstrating its Corporate social responsibilityhelps a company build good reputation * If all companies act socially responsibley, quality of life as awhole increases * The way companies behave towards their employees determines many of society’s values and norms.

PART B (One question 250WORDS)
NEXT WEEK - - …
1.Organization types (MIMTZBERG) 1993
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亨利·明茨伯格的组织形式理论 组织配置的明茨伯格框架是一个模型,描述了6个有效的组织配置 1. 相互调整,可实现由简单的程序非正式沟通协调(两个操作系统之间的雇员) 2. 直接监督,是通过让一个人发出命令或指示的其他几个工作取得的相互联系(如当一个老板告诉别人该怎么做,一次一个步骤) 3. 标准化的工作流程,可实现通过指定的工作协调进程开展相互关联的任务的人(这些标准通常是正在开发的技术结构进行的作业的核心,在工作的指示,出来的时间与动作的情况一样研究) 4. 标准化产出,可实现通过指定不同的工作成果的协调(通常又开发了技术结构,如在财务计划,指定亚基业绩目标或规格,勾画出一个要生产产品的尺寸) 5. 标准化的技能 (和知识),其中不同的工作是由相关的培训,工人在收到专科医生( -凭借协调说,一名外科医生,在手术室的麻醉师,几乎自动地响应对方的标准程序) 6. 标准化规范,其中是规范注入的控制通常是为整个组织的工作,使每个人的职能按照相同的信念(如在一个宗教秩序)

2.COMMUNICATION process and PROCESS barrier (Lecture 5) OB的那篇作业有
The Communication Process * Sender – person wishing to share information with some other person * Message – what information to communicate * Encoding – sender translates the message into symbols or language * Noise – refers to anything that hampers any stage of the communication process * Receiver – person or group for which the message is intended * Medium – pathway through which an encoded message is transmitted to a receiver * Decoding - critical point where the receiver interprets and tries to make sense of the message

1. Process barriers: involves all components of the perceptual model of communication * Sender barrier * Encoding barrier * Message barrier * Medium barrier * Decoding barrier * Receiver barrier * Feedback barrier the communication process could be divided into two parts: transmission phase and feedback phase. The transmission phase means massages should be conveyed to at least two people or groups and the feedback phase means understanding should be sure (ibid). Encoding is a process of transmission phase, which means the massage could be translated by sender into symbol or language (Antony and MacVicar, 2011:149). In this process, there are a large number of ways to transmit the massage from sender to receive, such as letter and face-to-face communication. Besides, decoding is a process of feedback phase, and it means that after receiver received the massage from the initial sender, the receiver could be a new sender, and the new sender may send the message to initial sender with totally understand the meaning of initial massage. This process may be the most important part of communication, for if the receiver could know understand the meaning of the message, the receiver may create and send a wrong message to the next receiver which may cause the negative communication (ibid). According to Frenie and Anna (2011:109), anything that influence receiver to understand a massage called noise.

3.Adams’ Equity Theory (low & high) high context low context (Lecture 19)

| | | | | High Context | Low Context | | | Information resides in context | Messages are explicit and specific | Emphasis on background, basic values, societal status | Words carry all information | Less emphasis on legal paperwork | Reliance on legal paperwork | Focus on personal reputation | Focus on non-personal documentation of credibility | Saudi Arabia, Japan | Switzerland, U.S., Germany | |

Factor/Dimension | High Context | Low Context | Lawyers | Less Important | Very Important | A person’s word | Is his/her bond | Is not reliable–get it in writing | Responsibility forOrganizational error | Taken by highest level | Pushed to the lowest level | Space | People breathe on each other | Private space maintained | Time | Polychronic | Monochronic | Competitive Bidding | Infrequent | Common |

亚当斯的公平理论简介 亚当斯的公平理论又称社会比较理论,由美国心理学家约翰·斯塔希·亚当斯(John Stacey Adams)于1965年提出:员工的激励程度来源于对自己和参照对象(Referents)的报酬和投入的比例的主观比较感觉。 该理论是研究人的动机和知觉关系的一种激励理论,在亚当斯的《工人关于工资不公平的内心冲突同其生产率的关系》(1962,与罗森鲍姆合写)、《工资不公平对工作质量的影响》(1964,与雅各布森合写)、《社会交换中的不公平》(1965)等著作中有所涉及,侧重于研究工资报酬分配的合理性、公平性及其对职工生产积极性的影响。 其基本内容包括三个方面: 1、公平是激励的动力。 公平理论认为,人能否受到激励,不但受到他们得到了什么而定,还要受到他们所得与别人所得是否公平而定。 这种理论的心理学依据,就是人的知觉对于人的动机的影响关系很大。他们指出,一个人不仅关心自己所得所失本身,而且还关心与别人所得所失的关系。他们是以相对付出和相对报酬全面衡量自己的得失。如果得失比例和他人相比大致相当时,就会心理平静,认为公平合理心情舒畅。比别人高则令其兴奋,是最有效的激励,但有时过高会带来心虚,不安全感激增。低于别人时产生不安全感,心理不平静,甚至满腹怨气,工作不努力、消极怠工。因此分配合理性常是激发人在组织中工作动机的因素和动力。 2、公平理论的模式(即方程式): Qp/Ip=Qo/Io 式中,Qp代表一个人对他所获报酬的感觉。Ip代表一个人对他所做投入的感觉。Qo代表这个人对某比较对象所获报酬的感觉。Io代表这个人对比较对象所做投入的感觉。 3、不公平的心理行为。 当人们感到不公平待遇时,在心里会产生苦恼,呈现紧张不安,导致行为动机下降,工作效率下降,甚至出现逆反行为。个体为了消除不安,一般会出现以下一些行为措施:通过自我解释达到自我安慰,逐个上造成一种公平的假象,以消除不安;更换对比对象,以获得主观的公平;采取一定行为,改变自己或他人的得失状况;发泄怨气,制造矛盾;暂时忍耐或逃避。 公平与否的判定受个人的知识、修养的影响,即使外界氛围也是要通过个人的世界观、价值观的改变才能够其作用。 亚当斯(1965)的观点,当员工发现组织不公正时,会有以下六种主要的反应:改变自己的投入;改变自己的所得;扭曲对自己的认知;扭曲对他人的认知;改变参考对象;改变目前的工作。
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公平理论的基本内容 公平理论的基本观点是:当一个人做出了成绩并取得了报酬以后,他不仅关心自己的所得报酬的绝对量,而且关心自己所得报酬的相对量。因此,他要进行种种比较来确定自己所获报酬是否合理,比较的结果将直接影响今后工作的积极性。比较有两种,一种比较称为横向比较,一种比较称为纵向比较。 1、横向比较 所谓横向比较,即一个人要将自己获得的“报偿”(包括金钱、工作安排以及获得的赏识等)与自己的“投入”(包括教育程度、所作努力、用于工作的时间、精力和其它无形损耗等)的比值与组织内其他人作社会比较,只有相等时他才认为公平。如下式所示: OP/IP=OC/IC 其中,OP表示自己对所获报酬的感觉;OC表示自己对他人所获报酬的感觉;IP表示自己对个人所作投入的感觉;IC表示自己对他人所作投入的感觉。 当上式为不等式时,可能出现以下两种情况: 一是前者小于后者。他可能要求增加自己的收入或减少自己今后的努力程度,以便使左方增大,趋于相等;第二种办法是他可能要求组织减少比较对象的收入或让其今后增大努力程度以便使右方减少趋于相等。此外,他还可能另外找人作为比较对象以便达到心理上的平衡。 二是前者大于后者。他可能要求减少自己的报酬或在开始时自动多做些工作,久而久之他会重新估计自己的技术和工作情况,终于觉得他确实应当得到那么高的待遇,于是产量便又会回到过去的水平了。 2、纵向比较 所谓纵向比较,即把自己目前投入的努力与目前所获得报偿的比值,同自己过去投入的努力与过去所获报偿的比值进行比较,只有相等时他才认为公平。如下式所示: OP/IP=OH/IH 其中,OH表示自己对过去所获报酬的感觉;IH表示自己对个人过去投入的感觉。当上式为不等式时,人也会有不公平的感觉,这可能导致工作积极性下降。当出现这种情况时,人不会因此产生不公平的感觉,但也不会感觉自己多拿了报偿从而主动多做些工作。调查和实验的结果表明,不公平感的产生绝大多数是由于经过比较认为自己目前的报酬过低而产生的;但在少数f青况下也会由于经过比较认为自己的报酬过高而产生。
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公平理论的假设条件[1] 公平理论有两个假设条件: 1)个体会评估他的社会关系。所谓社会关系,就是个体在付出或投资时希望获得某种回报的“交易过程”。在这种交易过程中,个体进行投入,期望获得一定的收益。例如,你希望获得额外的收入(收益),作为一段时间努力工作(投入)的结果。个体对于自己所付出的时间和精力都是有所期望的; 2)个体并不是无中生有地评估公平,而是把自己的境况与他人进行比较,以此来判断自己的状况是否公平。
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公平理论的分类 按照参照对象的不同对该理论进行分类: 1、横向比较:自己vs.组织内他人(判断下式是否成立)。即他要将自己获得的“报偿”(包括金钱、工作安排以及获得的赏识等)与自己的“投入”(包括教育程度、所作努力、用于工作的时间、精力和其它无形损耗等)的比值与组织内其他人作社会比较,只有相等时,他才认为公平。 对自己所获报酬的主观感觉/对自己所作投入的主观感觉 = 对他人所获报酬的主观感觉/自己对他人所作投入的主观感觉 其数学表达式为: Qp/Ip=Qo/Io 当上式为不等式时,可能出现以下两种情况: 1)Qp/Ip<Qo/Io 在这种情况下,他可能要求增加自己的收入或减小自己今后的努力程度,以便使左方增大,趋于相等;第二种办法是他可能要求组织减少比较对象的收入或者让其今后增大努力程度以便使右方减小,趋于相等。此外,他还可能另外找人作为比较对象,以便达到心理上的平衡。 2)Qp/Ip>Qo/Io 在这种情况下,他可能要求减少自己的报酬或在开始时自动多做些工作,但久而久之,他会重新估计自己的技术和工作情况,终于觉得他确实应当得到那么高的待遇,于是产量便又会回到过去的水平了。 2、纵向比较:自己的今昔(判断下式是否成立) 。即把目前所获得报偿与自己目前投入的努力的比值,同自己过去所获报偿与过去投入的努力的比值进行比较,只有相等时他才认为公平。 对自己所获报酬的主观感觉/对自己所作投入的主观感觉 = 对自己过去所获报酬的主观感觉/对自己过去投入的主观感觉 其数学表达式为: Qp/Ip=Qh/Ih 当上式为不等式时,也可能出现以下两种情况: 1)Qp/Ip<Qh/Ih 当出现这种情况时,人也会有不公平的感觉,这可能导致工作积极性下降。 2)Qp/Ip>Qh/Ih 当出现这种情况时,人不会因此产生不公平的感觉,但也不会觉得自己多拿了报偿,从而主动多做些工作。 调查和试验的结果表明,不公平感的产生,绝大多数是由于经过比较认为自己目前的报酬过低而产生的;但在少数情况下,也会由于经过比较认为自己的报酬过高而产生。

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Ethics

...Case study chapter 3, pg. 117: Ethical Dilemma- Bounty Hunters Summary of the case study Rick Raymond is a Private Investigator who investigates employees at the requests of employers. Absenteeism is a huge problem for organizations that has left them desperate for solutions. One solution is to investigate. But one problem for employees is that sick-leave policies are different for every company and sometimes for different divisions within one company, leaving the interpretation up to administrators or employees. There some administrators which are allowed sick leave to be used for other purposes. These situations all present ethical problems for management. New York recently joined the list of cities requiring paid sick leave. Others include Portland, Seattle, San Francisco, Long Beach, and Washington, DC. Other regions are sure to follow. Many consider paid sick leave an act of fairness. This is not a significant increase in expense, and it has a huge impact on the quality of life that the employees leave. 3-12. Discuss the ethical dilemma in requesting the private investigation of an employee ‘s absence. Though investigating ones employees to see the validity of their claims is legal, I see it as unethical unless used as an absolute last resource. Starting with the work place, there is no reasonable assumption to privacy according to the law. The idea is, if you wanted it not to be public, you would either leave it at...

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