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Organisational Culture

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Submitted By SHIMCHERRY
Words 12998
Pages 52
World Development Vol. 41, pp. 51–66, 2013
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
0305-750X/$ - see front matter www.elsevier.com/locate/worlddev http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.06.012

Gender in Transition: The Case of North Korea
STEPHAN HAGGARD
University of California, San Diego, USA

and
MARCUS NOLAND *
Peterson Institute for International Economics, USA
East-West Center, USA
Summary. — This paper uses survey data to examine the experience of women in North Korea’s economic transition. Women have been shed from state-affiliated employment and thrust into a market environment characterized by weak institutions and corruption. More than one-third of men indicate that criminality and corruption is the best way to make money, and 95% of female traders report paying bribes. The increasingly male-dominated state preys on the increasingly female-dominated market. Energies are directed toward survival and this population appears to lack the tools to act collectively to improve their status.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Key words — gender, transition, refugees, North Korea

1. INTRODUCTION

emphasis on the dramatic shifts that occurred as the state socialist system broke down during the famine of the mid-1990s and the country experienced “marketization from below.”
We then turn to an examination of the sample, household economics and the implications of the fact that North Korean women have been disproportionately involved in marketization that the state has sought to limit, control and even criminalize. Women are not differentially prone to arrest and do not appear to receive distinctly worse treatment than men. Indeed, there is evidence that the police exercise relative restraint toward the middle-aged married women who figure prominently in retail trading. But women’s higher levels of market participation make them

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