PROCESS THEORIES (goal setting and reinforcement theory)
§ Goal Setting Theory o Goals that are specific, difficult (but attainable), accepted and are accompanied by feedback, will motivate performance the best. Specific means measurable somehow. Difficult means that people need to exert some amount of effort over what they are used to doing. Accompanied by feedback means telling them how they’re doing. o It works because it focuses attention. They tend to work harder. BUT they may try to achieve these goals to the exclusion of other important things. So be careful that things don’t work to well. § Reinforcement Theory o Types of reinforcement: § Positive- encourages behavior in the future by rewarding behavior · Claim this is better than Punishment because it tells you what to do, not what not to do § Extinction–you remove the reward when a person engages in the behavior. They therefore become less likely to perform that behavior. § Punishment – you give something negative in response to certain bad behavior · Guidelines for using punishment: o Punishment should be delivered immediately or as rapidly as possible so that the employee will see the link between the bad behavior and the punishment o Give moderate, appropriate levels – punishment should fit the crime…if you give to little, it has no effect, if to much, it may lead to people questioning you. o Focus on behavior not person – this helps them to see the link between punishment and their behavior o Give the reason for the punishment. Make sure they understand o Use consistently – Don’t show favoritism. Also be sure the be consistent…the behavior must be punished every time the behavior occurs so that they don’t receive mixed signals. o Don’t follow up with non-contingent rewards – you can’t punish them and then comfort them. Don’t punish them and then reward them for something they haven’t done etc. o Avoid punishing in public. Tempting to make examples of others. People evaluate what you as the punisher are doing, they question your judgment, motives etc. MORE PROCESS THEORIES (equity and expectancy theory)
§ Equity Theory o It is the idea that people are motivated by equity (justice) § Basically states that people are going to be motivated to restore equity ( he likes this theory a lot) § They tend to evaluate the outcomes vs. the inputs of their job against the outcomes vs. the inputs of the jobs of other people (known as referant). If they think those ratios are equal, then they believe they are in a state of equity. If they think the ratios are unequal, then they feel inequity (either under rewarded or over rewarded) o When people have this sense of inequity, they want to FIX it…they are motivated to engage in behavior to restore some sense of equity. · Equity theory predicts that to fix it, they will try to change their outcomes (stealing) or inputs (working less), or by quitting, or to act against the referent. o Acting against the referent means that you encourage the referent to change their situation so that you don’t feel inequity. o They may also change referents – People may pick a referent that gives a better outcome (makes you feel more equitable). o In a state where over-reward exists, people don’t seem to be as perceptive to thisbut they do tend to work a little harder. The other way to restore equity is to return or decline some of the reward. o Procedural justice is impt. People less likely to steal and do other things if you go about bad things the right way (like showing them that you care) o People seek to change the inputs and/or outputs so that they can reduce their felt inequality. o People tend to rationalize their inputs and outputs. They might think (I work harder so I’m not over rewarded, I’m justly rewarded).

§ Expectancy Theory (VIE theory) o He thinks this is the most practical theory o States there are 3 links in motivation: § Expectancy · IF I do this, will I be able to perform successfully § Instrumentality · If I perform, will it lead to a particular outcome § Valence · The perceived value of the outcome o But if any of these links is broken, or zero, then we have a problem. o Class example § (Expectancy – if I study hard I can learn the material) § (Instrumentality – If I learn material, I can do well on exam) § (Valence – If I do well on exam, I can get a good grade) § This assumes that you believe that you can learn the material (high expectancy), that you want to do well on the exam (High Instrumentality), and that you value good grades (High Valence). If one of these links is broken, or zero, or if I really don’t care, then motivation would be hard to achieve. Conflict handling style
Low self/Low Other: Avoiding – you try to avoid conflict altogether.
Low Self/High Other: Accomodating – you look out for their interests not yours
High Self/Low Other: Competing –you look out for your interests. Usually happens when you have the power
High Self/High Other: Collaborating – considered the win-win. Maximizes both party interests. Requires more time but is a better strategy if it is important and you have the time. Generally requires the most amount of effort.

Moderate Self/Moderate Other: Compromising – both parties get something but neither party gets what they want. He thinks its overrated. It sounds good but it doesn’t really resolve the conflict.