A
TERM PAPER

ON

HIS 662: ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

TOPIC: RESOURCE USE, BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND OUR COLLECTIVE FUTURE

WRITTEN BY

NSEK, UDUAK OKON
REG. NO: 13/PG/AR/HS/006
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF UYO

SUBMITTED TO

DR. DOMINIC AKPAN
LECTURER IN CHARGE
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIOANL STUDIES
FACULTY OF ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF UYO

MARCH, 2015

Abstract
Resource use can be defined as the derivation of benefit from that resource in economic or financial, social or cultural, political and ecological respects. Human actions or resource use have altered global environment and reduced biodiversity by causing extinctions and reducing the population sizes of surviving species. Increasing human population size and per capita resource use will continue to have direct and indirect consequences such as distorted values of plant and animal resources, inappropriate resource tenure and ownership structure as well as lack of knowledge on resource management and biodiversity conservation. Inevitably, our collective future becomes bleak as future generations will inhabit a planet with significantly less wildlife, diminished ecosystem services and an increased impoverished people.

Keywords: Resource, Biodiversity, future

Introduction The most significant environmental issue in the contemporary world has been resource use and biodiversity conservation. This is not unusual because humans benefit directly or indirectly from resources and its biodiversity. In the last few decades, population growth has increased manifold and consequently demand for food, dwelling space and other necessities has also increased. By implication, the activities of humans have aggravated resource use which has led to the destruction of biodiversity conservation. In addition, it has ultimately created the ecological imbalance in different parts of the world since humans depend on the vast biodiversity for food, shelter, medicine, recreations etcetera. Apart from intensive resource use, political and policy issues have contributed immensely to the loss of biodiversity conservation at an alarming rate. Without technological advances in the areas of energy and food production and / or a radical shift in per capita resource use, the global human population must eventually fall below current levels. As a species with global distribution, humans have extremely limited opportunities for emigrating to suitable, unoccupied habitat. At issue is the manner the human population reduction will occur in particular whether it will result primarily from increased death rates or decreased birth rates. Ultimately, all of today’s environmental problems proceed from unprecedented high global per capita resource use and alteration of biodiversity conservation. However, there exists a probability. Our collective future could be better than the past if the magnitude of human impact on resource use and biodiversity conservation change thereby bringing a variety of positive reinforcing consequences. Conversely, unfortunate human actions will be consequential to a profound diminished biodiversity. The theoretical framework for this academic discourse is anchored on systems theory. This paper will discuss conceptual issues of resource, biodiversity and future. In addition, this paper will present a case study and analyze resource use, biodiversity conservation and our collective future. Other relevant issues such as renewable and non-renewable resources, threats of biodiversity, importance of biodiversity will be discussed cursorily. Conclusion will expose the expediency of resource use, biodiversity conservation and our collective future. To commence, there is need to be conversant with the theoretical framework as well as conceptual issues namely resource, biodiversity and future.

Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework for this academic discourse is anchored on the systems theory. The systems theory was derived from Bertalalanffy General Systems Theory (GST) and was given inter disciplinary perspective by Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson. The theory provides a way to study complex systems in nature, society and science. More specifically, the theory is a framework through which a scholar can analyze and/or describe any group of objects that work together to produce result (Wikipedia, 2007). According to Baskin, Aronoff and Lattimore (1997), the systems theory provides a way to view relationships. It captures the notion of the inter-relation between parts and wholes. The system theory crystallizes the need for inter-dependency.

Conceptual Issues Most available evidences shown in the literature on resource, biodiversity and future portends the concepts to be nebulous, hence different meanings in different contexts. However, an attempt will be made adopting simple and straight forward definition in the context of this discourse.

Resource In the words of Ricklefs (2005), a resource is a source of supply, support or aid from which benefit is produced a readily drawn upon when needed. Typical resources are materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge or other assets that are transformed to produce benefit and in the process may be consumed or made unavailable. Benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth, proper functioning of a system, meeting needs or wants or enhanced well-being. From a human perspective, resource is anything obtained from the environment to satisfy human needs and wants. From a biological or ecological perspective a resource satisfies the needs of living organisms. In corroboration, Miller and Spoolman (2011), on their part viewed the concept of resource as being applied in diverse realms, with respect to biology, ecology, economics and human resources. It is linked to the concepts of sustainability, conservation, competition and stewardship. Resources have been variously categorized as biotic versus abiotic, potential versus actual and renewable versus non-renewable. Resources have three main characteristics namely utility, limited availability (scarcity) and potential for depletion or consumption. Use on the other hand as stated in Wikipedia means the act or practice of employing something or to consume completely (Wikipedia, 2015). Resource use therefore, means a process whereby a source of supply or support which benefit is produced or readily drawn upon when needed becomes consumed completely.

Biodiversity Gaston (1996) opined that biodiversity was coined as a contraction of “biological diversity”. Biodiversity refers to all the variety of life that can be found on earth, (plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as to the communities that they form and the habitats in which they live. However, the most widely accepted definition for biodiversity is contained within the convention on biological diversity (CBD) in its article 2: “biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes biodiversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” (United Nations Environment Program, 1993). In consonance, Wilson (1992) commented that biological diversity is often understood at three levels namely species, genetic and ecosystem. Species diversity refers to the variety of different species (plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) such as palm trees, elephants or bacteria; genetic diversity corresponds to the variety of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms. It occurs within a species as well as between species. For example, German Shepherds and poodles are all dogs but they all look different. Ecosystem diversity refers to all the different habitats that exist, like the tropical or temperate forest, hot and cold deserts, wetlands, rivers, mountains, coral reef et cetera. Each ecosystem corresponds to a series of complex relationship between biotic (living) components such as plants and animals and abiotic (non-living) components which include sunlight, air, water, minerals and nutrients. On the other hand, conservation as stated by Jamieson (2008) means the act of preserving, guarding or protecting; wise use. The main usage of conservation may refer to biodiversity, environment and natural resources including protection and management. Other usage could refer to cultural heritage such as art conservation, protection and restoration of cultural heritage. Biodiversity conservation therefore refers to the act of preserving, guarding or protecting the variety of life that can be found on Earth (Plant, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as the communities that they form and the habitats in which they live.

Future Future is viewed by Umbro (2001) as a prospective or expected condition, especially one considered with regard to growth, advancement or development. Its arrival is considered inevitable due to the apparent nature of reality. The future is what will happen in the time after the present. Marien (1996) has argued that at a time of unprecedented change, where humanity’s impact on the natural world is present everywhere, we face important questions about the way forward. Questions of what will happen to the tens of millions of species who have kept us company throughout our history, how can we maintain intact and productive ecosystem amidst rapid development, how will the loss of biological diversity impact pollination, pest control and disease outbreaks; and how can ecosystem services be used to reduce poverty and humans suffering? These are the imperatives bothering our collective future. Each person has both an individual future and a collective future. The collective future has hierarchical levels: family, region, nation and the entire world including the biological world. Collective future often has big impacts on individual future. What is termed our collective future means a future not for human beings only but for animals and plants as well.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources Nature has gifted all types of resources which are used by human beings. Some resources are limitless and some are limited being on the edge of extinction. Some might be used again while some will lie around unused and simply go to waste. Abelson (1976) referred to renewable resources as those resources which can be replenished or replaced over time. Great examples of renewal resources are wind, sunlight, biomass et cetera. Some of these renewable resources are supposed to have continuous supplies such as wind energy and solar energy while some others take greater time in their renewal like wood and oxygen. Geothermal energy is another good example of renewable resources. It is the source of energy extracted from the heat stored under the surface of the earth and found in the form of inactive volcanic sites or hot springs. It is utilized for generating electricity and heat pumps. Harman (2005) added that non-renewable resources on the other hand exist only in limited quantities and cannot be renewed once they are completely consumed. These resources which replenish slowly are considered non-renewable because these resources will either be unavailable or available after a long time. Examples of on-renewable resources are fossil fuel such as coal, oil, minerals and natural gas. Our lifetime is another example of non-renewable resource. One used up, and individual cannot get back lost time. Water is a controversial resource which can be categorized as both renewable and non-renewable resource. The cyclic change of water makes it a renewable resource while its unmanaged usage is making it a non-renewable resource. Obviously, resources are being used faster than they can be replenished. Since we rely on natural resources for our survival, we can neither afford to use them all up nor stop using them completely.
Between the two extremes, however, is sustainable use. Sustainably using resources means using resources in a manner that meets the needs of the present generation while ensuring that some resources will be left for use by future generations.

Threats of Biodiversity Today, species and habitats are becoming extinct or disappearing at a remarkable speed because of biodiversity loss or threats to biodiversity. These threats are stated by Kareiva and Levin (2002) below: (a) Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is usually a direct result of human activity. It is an important cause in the loss of species, populations, and ecosystems. Human activities such as cutting down forest, digging mines, building cities or making roads destroys habitats or create obstacles that fragment habitats. (b) Human – generated pollution and contamination such as acid rain, oil spills, human waste, nuclear waste or over use of pesticides can affect diversity (c) Invasive species can disrupt entire ecosystem and have a major impact on populations of native plants or animals by eating them, infecting them, competing with them or mating them. The invaders which are often alien (exotic or non-native) species have been introduced voluntarily or involuntarily through human activity are expected to increase as human activities increase. (d) Over exploitation with reference to over-hunting, over-fishing or over-collecting of a species or population can lead to its disappearance as well as the over-exploitation of essential resources for ecosystem functioning such as water and soil. Many of the world’s natural resources are being used by humans faster than they can replace themselves. Commercial fish such as cod are overharvested while species like dolphins and sea turtles often due in fishing nets. People buy wildlife and wildlife products to use either as pets, medicines or decorative objects. (e) Global climate change alters environmental conditions. As humans burn fossil fuel like oil and coal for energy, more carbon dioxide with other gases like methane enters the atmosphere contributing to global warming. Consequently, the rise in Earth’s temperature causes change in climate which modifies the ecosystem resulting in the loss of species or populations that cannot adapt but relocate to adequate habitats. (f) Population Growth added to current consumption and production patterns results in biodiversity threat. Over seven billion people live on earth implies that more and more resources are used for food, water, medicine, fuel, clothes and shelter. To this extent, fewer resources are left for the Earth’s species and habitats.

Importance of Biodiversity Conservation The natural environment provides the basic conditions without which humans could not survive. This seems intuitive enough. We need to breathe, eat, drink and shelter ourselves and we get all these from the natural world. In 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a study involving more than 1,300 scientist worldwide, popularized the concept of “ecosystem service”. It referred precisely to the multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by ecosystems which are essential to human activity. The M.A classified ecosystem services into four categories: The provision or Biological Services which are goods provided by the ecosystems such as food, medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs, wood products, ornamental plants, diversity in genes, species and ecosystems. The regulating services which entails the regulation of local and global climate, soil formation and protection, nutrient storage and recycling, prevention of floods and diseases, purification of water, pollution breakdown and absorbtion. The cultural or social services which are the intangible benefits provided by the ecosystems such as research, education and monitoring, recreation, spiritual fulfillment and tourism. The supporting services are all those services without which the other services could not exist. These are nutrient cycles, crop pollination, soil formation, primary production (photosynthesis), provision of habitat. Biodiversity is central to ecosystem functioning and hence, the existence and maintenance of ecosystem services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). In the same corollary, it has become clear that biodiversity is the cornerstone of our existence on earth. It is also important to conserve biodiversity for the sake of our important to conserve biodiversity for the sake of our own curiosity and aesthetic appreciation. The Amazon rainforest of South America has a unique variety of wildlife and wildflowers which is full of biodiversity wonders. Medicines originating from wild species, including penicillin, aspirin, taxol and quinine have saved millions of lives and alleviated tremendous suffering. 40% of all prescriptions are form medicines that originated from plants and animals. No one knows how many more cures await discovery, hidden in Earth’s poorly studied species. There are 80,000 species of edible plants known on Earth but 90% of the world’s food comes from a mere 20% of these species. Edible plant species, both known and unknown, offer a tremendous resource of possibilities that greatly adds to the security of our food. Many of these plants have high potential for commercial exploitation as well as feeding the ever-increasing human population. Biodiversity is the life support system of our planet – we depend on it for the air we breathe, the food we eat and the water we drink. Wetlands filter pollutants from water, trees and plants reduce global warming by absorbing carbon, bacteria and fungi break down organic material and fertilize the soil. It has been empirically shown that native species richness is linked to the health of ecosystem, as is the quality of life for humans. The connections between biodiversity and our collective future appear closer and closer. We literally need to conserve biodiversity like our lives depend on it (Hunter, 1996).

Resource Use, Biodiversity Conservation And Our Collective Future According to Mckee (2003), the twenty first century represents a century of fragility where radical measures for resource use and biodiversity conservation is imperative if we must sustain life in the future. We have destroyed, degraded and polluted earth’s natural resources. Natural resources are the raw materials that we use everyday. These includes everything we eat as well as the materials we use to build our hoses, make our clothes, tools and many other necessities of life. The air we breathe, the water we drink and the land we grow our food are also natural resources. By implication, natural resources are all the things human as well as other species depend on for their survival. Since natural resources encompass various things, in the context of this discourse it becomes imperative to categorize these resource, thus: renewable and non-renewable; which has been mentioned and discussed earlier. Increasing human population size and consumption of these resources per person have precipitated an extinction crisis which is comparable to past extinction events. Unlike the previous extinction events which were attributed to natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, meteorite impact and global cooling, the current mass extinction is exclusively humanity’s fault but all is not lost yet. In consonance, Soule (1996) commented that biodiversity conservation should be a priority to humans since they are the dominant specie on Earth. Humans have moral obligation to ensure biodiversity conservation, the long-term persistence of rainforest, baobab trees, coral reefs, tigers, rhinos, pandas and a plethora of other creatures. All these landmarks and life make our planet remarkable. Our imagination will be bankrupt if wild nature is obliterated; even if civilization could survive the disaster. He continued that, in addition to moral and aesthetic reasons, we have a selfish reason for biodiversity conservation because it provides society with countless and invaluable goods and absolutely crucial services such as food, medicine, pollination pest control and flood protection. In a relative development, Vaclav (1999) opined that we face a dilemma given the uncertainties about future technological innovations because no one can provide a persuasive prediction of the future when considering increase in human population and per capita resource use. However, depending on how people opt to behave now and for the next several generations, our collective future will experience significantly greater or lesser percentage of today’s biodiversity. Our understanding of endemism is insufficient for us to know the future with precision.

The Way Forward Man is the dominant specie and has the potential or capability of controlling his environment. Resource use and biodiversity is an inter-related issue where the health of the environment is strongly tied to our economic choices. Sustainable resource use can be achieved through management against over-exploitation. Conservation ethics should be inculcated through the use of education. Education will assist people to understand that conservation ethics advocates the management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species, ecosystem, human culture and society. Furthermore, local and national level laws where biodiversity is taken into account in some political and judicial decisions are necessary. Relatively, global agreements such as the convention on Biological Diversity give sovereign national rights over biological resources. The agreement commit countries to conserve biodiversity, develop resources for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. These acts will ensure checks and balances for our collective future.

Conclusion The task of the Historian, according to Elton (1968): …is not a question of finding an answer to the future for the world. All he can do is tell them the past in such a way that they can think about the past, present and future. This is precisely what this academic discourse has tried to do. The paper has attempted to discuss resource use, biodiversity conservation and our collective future. It provided insight on renewable and non-renewable resources, threats to biodiversity and importance of biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity is the life support system of our planet. Awareness must be created for all and sundry to have profound knowledge on environmental management. Although the future is uncertain, the awareness created will provide guiding principles for resource use and biodiversity conservation when considering our collective future.

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