...Philosophies of Ethics Adam Smith’s Theory Adam Smith developed a comprehensive version of moral sentimentalism in his Theory of Moral Sentiments. Smith claims that every man, by nature, always takes care of himself more than of any other person and concerns himself more than any other man. This individual freedom is rooted in self-reliance, the ability of an individual to pursue his self-interest. Yet Smith explains that as social creatures we are endowed with a natural sympathy (pity, compassion) towards others. When we see others distressed or happy, we feel for them and, likewise, others seek our sympathy and feel for us. As we grow from childhood to adulthood, through experience we gradually build up a system of behavioral rules (standards) – morality. So it stems from our social nature. Smith believes that for society to survive there must be rules to present its individual members not to harm each other which they have to obey and these rules are called justice. Also if people go further than obey the rules and do good (beneficence) we welcome it, but cannot demand such actions as we demand justice. Smith ends The Theory of Moral Sentiments by stating that a truly virtuous person is willing to sacrifice all his inferior interests to the greater interest of the universe, great society. By doing that such a person, he suggests, would embody the qualities of justice, beneficence and self-command. Hume’s Moral Philosophy According to Hume, our intentional actions...
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...S DeBrule Principles of Ethics 445 09 February 2013 As the lead surgeon and the sole decision maker for all transplant cases, I have a dilemma on my hands. I have just received a call notifying me that a heart has become available for transplant. I currently have 3 patients that are candidates for this heart. Time is of the essence; therefore I have decided to give the heart to Jerry, a 55 year old married man, father of 3 children. Improved outcome of heart failure in response to medical therapy, coupled with a critical shortage of donor organs, makes it imperative to restrict heart transplantation to patients who are most disabled by heart failure and who are likely to derive the “maximum” benefit from transplantation. I believe Jerry is the best candidate for the transplant because of his overall situation. As previously mentioned he is only 55 years old and has 3 dependent children, the youngest of which has special needs. His wife has been a lifelong homemaker and as such has not acquired any professional skills or training. Taking this into consideration, it will prove difficult for her to provide for herself and their children after the loss of her husband. Jerry’s job does not mandate strenuous physical activity and he is eligible for retirement in 5 years. After his retirement, he can remain home with his family. The damage done to his heart was incurred by steroid use during his early 20’s. The dangers associated with steroids were not fully known at...
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...I. DEFINITION OF ETHICS Rushworth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty' ". Ethics, sometimes known as philosophical ethics, ethical theory, moral theory, and moral philosophy, is a branch ofphilosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct, often addressing disputes of moral diversity. The term comes from the Greek word ἠθικός ethikos from ἦθος ethos, which means "custom, habit". The superfield within philosophy known as axiology includes both ethics and aesthetics and is unified by each sub-branch's concern with value. Philosophical ethics investigates what is the best way for humans to live, and what kinds of actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. Ethics may be divided into three major areas of study: * Meta-ethics, about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined * Normative ethics, about the practical means of determining a moral course of action * Applied ethics draws upon ethical theory in order to ask what a person is obligated to do in some very specific situation, or within some particular domain of action (such as business) Related fields are moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory. Ethics seeks to resolve questions dealing with human morality—concepts such as good and evil...
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...Quiz #1 Questions 1. Give full and logical descriptions of the philosophy. Biography is optional. 2. Give any comparison you consider interesting. Pro/Con Philosophers 3. Your personal opinion about this philosophy. David Hume 1 Biography 1711 – 1776 Scottish Philosopher Self-Proclaimed Agnostic Did not believe we could answer the question, “Does God exist?” Exiled and moved to France Leading thinker in European enlightenment Wrote treaties on ethics, knowledge, religion, and human nature. Was called, “Good David”, remarkably kind and humorous, or the Scottish Skeptic Essay, “Of Self-Love” Essay, “Moral Distinction not Derived from Reason” All action is motivated by selfishness, or “self-love”. This claim in psychological egoism is at odds with our regular experiences with people In which we act with “such affections as love, friendship, compassion, and gratitude”. Reducing things down to one cause may work in natural sciences, but it is unnecessary and inaccurate in the human sciences. In “Moral Distinctions not Derived from Reason”, argues that morality is not based solely on pure rationality, but on our “sentiments,” Sentiments – Our feelings of acceptance or disapproval. Thus, moral thinking is also moral *feeling* Supported by examining cases of moral “turpitude” 1. Incest 2. Murder 3. Ingratitude “To [even] the most careless observer, there appear to be such dispositions...
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...Applying Moral Philosophies to Business Ethics Moral philosophies - present guidelines for determining how conflicts in human interests are to be settled and for optimizing mutual benefit of people living together in groups. --There is no one correct way to resolve ethical issues in business. -- Each type of philosophy has a distinct basis for deciding whether a particular action is right or wrong. -- Ethics issues analyzed using different philosophical theories generally have the same appropriate outcome. Role Morality — people have a moral responsibility to fulfill their role in the organization Do employees have a moral responsibility to “do their jobs?” What are their responsibilities? Do employers have a moral responsibility to “do their jobs?” What are their responsibilities? How do employers handle conflicts in the different roles they perform? What if your superior wants you to carry out some responsibility, and your workgroup thinks this is unfair? What if some personal role conflicts with a work role? (Others roles include: student, parent, child, organization member, etc.) Moral Philosophy Perspectives 1. Teleology — egoism - enlightened egoism - utilitarianism 2. Deontology 3. Relativist Perspective 4. Virtue Ethics I. Teleology — consequences (consequentialist theories) egoism — right behavior is based on good consequences for the individual enlightened egoism — some basic “rules”...
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...The purpose of this essay is to explore Virtue Ethics as an Ethical Philosophy that is more interested in virtues rather than the rules and principles of ethics. While exploring the moral character is important to this approach to normative ethics, it is worth mentioning that it is possible to boil down the two other major approaches – Deontology and Consequentialism – to Virtue Ethics. Upon further investigation, it becomes apparent that many defenses of ‘duties’ or Deontology, implicitly appeals to the consequences of our actions, even if those consequences are hidden behind a veil of mystery or authority. If this was not the case, the concept of duties would not make any sense since no matter what we do, no outcome will have a preferable...
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...Philosophy Paper 2 Mill claims that proving happiness is an end for all people requires an atypical form of proof for it is an atypical principle in academic writing. Declared by Mill: Ends, not means to an end, are desirable and things that are desirable are to be desired. Just as the physical senses of things being viewed are seen and things being audible are heard. The ONLY proof that happiness is an end, is if people desire it. And EVERYONE desires his or her own happiness. Therefore happiness is an end for all people. Though how this happiness is attained is different from individual to individual, the feeling is fundamentally the same. An issue presents itself with the first premises of this argument. The first “desirable” has the meaning of something we should want or the decision that is expected out of us from an external being. This form could be clearly presented as when parents list “desirable” traits of the mate their offspring brings home (i.e smart, philosophical, hardworking, attractive etc). In other words it is a desirable derived from the status quo or groundwork laid out by others, sculpting our conscience, morals, and ethics. The second desirable is a (maybe add internal) pleasure, or anything related, that is capable of being wanted. This form could be related to the cake on the window seal, numerous girls frolicking on a beach in their two-piece bikinis, the pursuit of inquiry, or just laying in bed an extra five minutes after one’s alarm. This desirable...
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...‘Abortion is immoral.’ – Do you agree? Abortion is the deliberate termination of a foetus. Some people may argue that it is a foetus; however some may disagree and say that it is a baby. People have different views on abortion, some may say that abortion is immoral – this means that it is wrong in all circumstances or an absolute morality – this also means wrong in all circumstances. However, other people may believe abortion is moral – this means peoples beliefs on what is right or wrong or relative morality – this means it is only right in some circumstances. The law states that abortion is a relative morality because it only allows abortion to continue in certain circumstances, the circumstances are: the mental or physical health of the woman or her existing children will suffer if the pregnancy continues or the child, if born would be physically or mentally handicapped. Alternatively, ‘The Abortion Act’ that began in 1967 may be performed legally if two or more doctors agree. The law on abortion in 1967 had no time limit but under normal circumstances, the pregnancy should not have been passed the 28th week. On the other hand, in the year 1990 another law had been made this was called ‘The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act’. As for the 1967 act except that the time limit was reduced to 24 weeks, this law stated that abortion should only be legal if abnormalities have been detected which are physical or mental you could have an abortion up until birth (after 24 weeks)...
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...How fair is the judgment that Bentham’s Utilitarianism is a ‘pig philosophy’ or ‘swine ethic.’ (10 marks) Thomas Carlyle was a critic of Bentham’s approach of Utilitarianism. He reflects on Bentham’s approach as a ‘pig philosophy’. This is because he saw it more as a morality based on the ‘swinish pleasure of the masses.’ Bentham’s philosophy was referred as a swinish or the pig’s philosophy as it endorsed on the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people. This is degrading humans viewing them as animals that focus mainly on the needs of the majority whether even if the minority is morally approved. An example of this will be abortion. Bentham’s theory will support the act of abortion. According to his theory the majority will receive pleasure through the abortion of an unborn. The pregnant women might have conceived the unborn by an accident. If the woman and her family are financially broken she will choose not to keep the child. This will lead them to take a decision to abort the unborn. This will not make the financial system better for the family however it will decrease the amount of materials they would need to spend for another person, allowing them to save some money. This will lead them to take a decision to abort the unborn child. Even though it is not acceptable to abort a child Bentham’s theory can be used to support this act. Majority will benefit from this abortion. However, utilitarianism advocates injustice as the innocent is unjustly...
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...Differentiate between: a. Ethics and Aesthetics Ethics constitutes the difference between right and wrong.Ethics are usually more broad and informal than laws, they are usually taught in ones childhood. Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that emphasizes on the beautiful and the ugly. It can be defined as the study of the mind and emotions in relation to the sense of beauty. b. the rationalist and the empiricist (at least 3 differences) A rationalist may study the principles of philosophy, theology, and architecture. An empiricist relies on observation, experiment, and conclusions. c. metaphysics from epistemology Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that treats principles. It also includes ontology and cosmology, and is connected with epistemology. Epistemology is the search for knowledge, validity, and methods. d. Axiology and ethics Axiology is the study of value. It is to research the nature, criteria, and metaphysical status of value. Ethics differs from the study of value given that it relies on what is right and wrong. Each individuals ethics will differ. Whereas Axiology is the current status of a particular value. e. Axiology and Aesthetics Axiology and Aesthetics can be confused easily. Aesthetics focuses on the beauty of something, whereas Axiology focuses on the value of that opinion. 2. Explain “what philosophy is” by discussing each of the following: a. the etymology or origin of the word “philosophy” Philosophy can be defined as the love...
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...Lowell Philosophy Department Introduction to Philosophy Philosophy 45. 201.201/02S Spring 2013 Syllabusi Conference Time and Location Tu & Th 3:30-4:45PM Class meet at SOU 403 NC Instructor: Andrés Paniagua andres_paniagua@uml.edu Office Hours T&R 3:00-3:25PM & W. 6:00-6:25 Office TBD Course Description. The practice and study of philosophy constitute one of the most distinctive strands of Western intellectual tradition. In order to understand-even simply recognize-the deepest assumptions we make as a culture we must turn to philosophy and to those thinkers whose ideas have shaped our assumptions. We will approach the study of philosophy as a conversation among the greatest thinkers of all the time, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger and Sartre. Our focus will be on each philosopher’s ideas and their impact on Western Civilization. We will also delve briefly into the cultural and historical context of each philosopher, evaluate weather their ideas are still relevant and some of their argument remain compelling. Course outline. The approach of this class is hybrid. The first part following an historical and chronological sequence, the second part follows a topical approach. Part I (a), Ancient philosophy, with our main focus on Plato and Aristotle. Part 1 (b) Late Renaissance and to Kant. Part II Empiricism and Positivism and part II (b) Existentialism. We will wrap the class pointing to some recent issues in philosophy: Postmodernism...
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...Philosophy for International Business: examination issues / questions 1. Define the difference between philosophy and common sense 2. Define the difference between philosophy and humanities/science 3. Define the difference between philosophy and ideology 4. What are the three general branches of philosophy/what are the basic philosophical questions? 5. Explain the meaning and significance of “the arché question” 6. The being and becoming dilemma in early Greek philosophy 7. Explain Zeno’s paradoxes 8. Is total flux chaotic? Explain the nature of change in the system of Heraclitus 9. Define dialectic 10. Virtue in Greek philosophy. Explain the meaning of knowledge in Socrates’s ethics 11. Explain “Eutyfro dilemma” 12. Plato’s theory of ideas: ideas and sensual objects – differences and similarities 13. Plato’s theory of ideas: the conception of participation 14. Plato’s theory of ideas: the allegory of the cave 15. Plato’s theory of ideas: the ideal state 16. Aristotle: syllogisms 17.Hylomorphism: substance and its components 18. Aristotle: the four causes: what is the sense of final cause? 19. Aristotle: the theory of virtue (Golden Mean) 20. Aristotle: what does it mean to be a political animal? 21. The existence of God: ontological argument as formulated by St. Anselm 22. The existence of God: ontological argument as formulated by Descartes (deceitful demon and “Matrix”) ...
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...ACCRA, NOVEMBER, 2011 Table of content pages Introduction 1 1. Philosophy of history 1 2. Philosophy of religion 4 3. Logic 6 4. Ethics 8 5. Cosmology 10 6. Philosophy of mind 12 7. Metaphysics 14 8. Philosophy of beauty 16 9. Philosophy of language 18 10. Philosophy of science 20 11. Epistemology 21 Conclusion 23 Bibliography 24 Introduction Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy at this contemporary world has gone through a lot of changes before getting to this stage. It can be seen in the historical perspective and also the topical perspective. The historical or chronological is when we look at the ideas of some philosophers in the past how they influence society with their way of thinking and the motive behind them. In these chronological system is the ancient era, the medieval era, the modern era and presently the contemporary era. In the beginning all systematic search for knowledge was philosophy. This is clearly seen in the modern university where the highest degree granted in all of the science and humanities is the Ph. D. the doctor of philosophy. But the children began to leave home. The first to leave was physics and astronomy. As they begun to develop experimental techniques of their own. This exodus, led by Galileo and Isaac Newton and Johannes...
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...Asdfadsfadsfasdfasdfasdfasdfasdfasdf The inspiration for environmental ethics was the first Earth Day in 1970 when environmentalists started urging philosophers who were involved with environmental groups to do something about environmental ethics. An intellectual climate had developed in the last few years of the 1960s in large part because of the publication of two papers in Science: Lynn White`s “The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis” (March 1967) and Garett Hardin`s "The Tragedy of the Commons" (December 1968). Most influential with regard to this kind of thinking, however, was an essay in Aldo Leopold`s A Sand County Almanac, "The Land Ethic," in which Leopold explicitly claimed that the roots of the ecological crisis were philosophical. Although originally published in 1949, Sand County Almanac became widely available in 1970 in a special Sierra Club/Ballantine edition, which included essays from a second book, Round River. Most academic activity in the 1970s was spent debating the Lynn White thesis and the tragedy of the commons. These debates were primarily historical, theological, and religious, not philosophical. Throughout most of the decade philosophers sat on the sidelines trying to determine what a field called environmental ethics might look like. The first philosophical conference was organized by William Blackstone at the University of Georgia in 1972. The proceedings were published as Philosophy and Environmental Crisis in 1974, which included Pete Gunter`s...
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...Sharing In The Triumph Academic Writing Tim Lu 07.10.2014 Among numerous subjects in myriads of fields, mathematics and philosophy, demanding impeccably logical thinking, share a great deal of features. All of the deans of ancient mathematics, Pythagoras; of Renaissance, Gottfried Leibniz; of modern, Bertrand Russell, were also major philosophers. Meanwhile, the ultimate ambitions of both subjects are closely linked—to give an explanation of everything by finding the general rules and patterns governing the entire universe. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to deduce that almost no one is able to state the subtle connection between these two fields. Try wandering in the most densely populated spot in New York City, Times Square, and asking someone from the crowd. Therefore, it is a good idea to show how they can blend into each other. Theory, as the word is used by scientists, is the highest expression of the quintessential ideas. In mathematics, some influential theories eventually boil down to philosophical ideas after their natures have been extracted and refined, and vice versa, even though the creators of such theories do not intentionally start thinking with ideas from the other discipline. For instance, the Nash Equilibrium, the great idea from John F.Nash, also a milestone in the development of game theory, has changed the foundations of economics. However, if we meticulously deconstruct this theory until we find its intrinsic nature, a philosophical idea will emerge...
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