Make-up Position Paper - Wk4, Ch7 - Political Participation
ASSIGNMENT INTRODUCTION - SUBMIT AS MAKEUP ONLY - READ FOR AIC.
Dear class,
Welcome to this week's Makeup Position Paper on Public Opinion and Participation. This make-up assignment is reserved for students who have failed to submit at least one, required position paper. Students must submit two makeup position papers in order to makeup for the credit lost on one required paper. If you wish to submit this assignment, please be sure to disable the TFE and topic text links before doing so. Furthermore, be sure to submit it in the proper folder.
ASSIGNMENT BACKGROUND - IMPORTANT POINTS
As usual, before I direct you to the week's assignment questions, there are a few remarks I would like to make regarding important, related issues and/or background material. Please consider the comments below, which touch upon a number of topics addressed in our text and which include a number of related observations taken from my own research.
Purposes of Elections
Firstly, one key point to remember is that elections, originally designed in order to allow citizens to select their own leaders, are also used by governments in order to build support for their policies. This is particularly true of parliamentary governments, which generally require simple plurality votes in order to pass sweeping legislation. In parliamentary governments, political parties are represented in direct proportion to the percentage of votes that they receive in general elections. Therefore, parliamentary majorities usually enjoy the implicit consent of a large percentage of the population whenever passing laws or implementing policies. However, if support is waning, a parliamentary government will sometimes call for a new, general election to hopefully gain more legislative seats, hence more support for their policies.
Types of Elections
Additionally, students should remember that there are many types of elections. Governments, even authoritarian ones, occasionally hold "referendums" which allow the populace to express support or dissent on controversial policies. Support for policies makes them easier to implement, and dissent gives the opposition a means by which to express their disapproval without resorting to violence or to overly-disruptive social protests like boycotts or strikes.
Furthermore, in the United States, a number of state governments have referendum processes by which average citizens can introduce and pass laws themselves. In California, for instance, a petition signed by only 1% of the state population is enough to get a referendum onto the next state ballot. If a simple majority of the electorate votes to pass the referendum, it becomes state law. Referendums can also be used to cancel out laws passed by the state legislature.
A similar process, called "recall", is used in some states to boot out previously elected officials. Unlike impeachment processes, which require that an elected official breach some law or professional code in order to qualify for dismissal from office, a recall can be held simply because 1% of the population no longer wants the elected official in office. Recalls usually occur when a significant number of the state's citizens strongly disagree with the policies of an official or believe that he/she has failed to act in the best interest of the state's citizens.
Types of Representation
Most introductory political science texts will also make note of the two types of representation most commonly found in the legislatures of democratic governments - proportional representation (PR) and single, member district plurality (SMDP). Note that, as mentioned above, proportional representation is usually found in parliamentary governments; single member, district plurality, on the other hand, often occurs in presidential governments. Proportional representation is generally considered more democratic because it allows small parties to have an active say in government while allowing a major party (with a mandate from the majority of citizens) to rule without an obstructive, minority challenge to its platform, agenda or programs.
Electoral Behavior: The Case of Sweden
Perhaps the central, election-related question addressed by political scientists the world over is "Who votes and why?" In doing my own research on this topic, I found it interesting to note that in the 2000 presidential election, Minnesota was the state with highest voter turnout, while Hawaii was the one with the lowest. Regarding what factors were at work here, various political scientists have pointed to Minnesota's cultural and ethnic heritage.
Minnesota is largely Scandinavian, and Scandinavians have the best voting records in the world. In his text, “Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science”, W. Phillips Shively quotes the current voting rate of Sweden at 81%, but my understanding is that this number, though perhaps current, is actually low for that country.1 In the past, Sweden has seen voter turnouts in the mid-ninety percentiles. Sweden is also one of the world's wealthiest nations (wealthy people vote), and it is one of the better educated societies in the world (educated people also vote).
Not only that, but Swedes see themselves as unique, part of a national "community" having a long and distinct democratic and egalitarian tradition. Many belong to rather strong, quasi-socialist, political parties which have helped spawn perhaps the world's most comprehensive "welfare state". Sweden's socialist parties boast wide-spread support which spans generations of blue-collar and white-collar workers who understand that they have an essential stake in the outcome of their nation's electoral processes. They see themselves as a voting "block" with shared, not merely selfish, interests.
Lastly, the Swedish political system is a parliamentary one with proportional representation. The system guarantees that any party winning a significant percentage of the vote will earn representation in the nation's law making bodies. As noted by Shively, parliamentary systems with proportional representation tend to foster increased electoral participation, since voters can be sure that any significant measure of support will result in a measure of political power being allotted to the party of their choice.
In short then, Sweden has historically enjoyed most of the conditions needed to develop a culture of political participation. They have a parliamentary system guaranteeing representation, a proud democratic and egalitarian tradition, a sense of community and common interests, strong political parties boasting a wide-spread, loyal following, and a financially-secure, educated population who believe that their voice and vote matter. The interaction of these factors has helped Sweden overcome the "paradox of participation" that Shively notes, in which a voter, acting out of self interest, as an individual, might perceive his or her vote not to matter.2 Rather, Sweden's voters engage in a "culture of participation" and boast one of the world's highest rates of electoral turnout.
Electoral Behavior: The Case of Swedish America
As further noted by a number of prominent political scientists, Swedish political culture has probably influenced the electoral behavior of voters in Minnesota who have inherited that culture from their European brethren. To one degree or another, these "sons" of Scandinavia seem to have adopted the culture of political participation that their grandfathers brought with them to the New World. According to 2003 figures quoted in Wikipedia (an online encyclopedia) more than 88% of all Minnesota residents were "white" and 8 of 10 residents were of Scandinavian or German descent.3 The relative homogeneity of Minnesota's voters may help to give them a sense of common interest and purpose, and this factor probably adds to the cultural influences which seem to have a positive effect on voting behavior.
Not only do many Minnesota residents share an ethnic and cultural identification with their Swedish ancestors, but, they enjoy an economic and social environment that is vaguely similar as well. Minnesota, like Sweden, is traditionally a region of small, middle-class farmers and tight communities. The sense of ownership and bond to one's land and community probably help to create a sense of political responsibility - a sense of having something at stake, something to look after and to defend. Minnesota Swedes, like their European counterparts, are largely Lutheran and are known for their modesty and reserve as well as their work ethic, which has apparently been applied to the political realm as well. Just as there can be no slackers on a dairy farm, there are few slackers at Minnesota polling stations. As previously mentioned, Minnesota turned out the nations highest percentage of voters in the 2000 presidential election - 67%. Interestingly, despite their conservative, small-business roots, Minnesotans voted narrowly in favor of Al Gore - the candidate from the Democratic Party, the party most closely identified with labor in America.
Electoral Behavior: The Case of Hawaii
In contrast to the admirable turnout in Minnesota, the state of Hawaii had the lowest voter turnout in the 2000 elections - a mere 40%. It seems only logical that if there were "positive" historic, cultural, social, and economic factors at work in Minnesota, then, there must have been "negative" influences at work in Hawaii. For instance, consider the fact that, before becoming part of the United States, Hawaii had existed for hundreds of years as a sovereign kingdom. Hawaii had a rich and proud culture, but that culture was not significantly influenced by democratic values until the early 20th century. Traditional Hawaiian society was based on a strict caste system, and western ideas of equality and freedom were foreign to it. Indeed, "democracy" was literally thrust upon Hawaiian society when American-born planters took up arms against the Hawaiian monarchy in 1894. Hawaii was "annexed" to the US as a territorial possession a few years later, but it was not until 1959, a mere 46 years ago, that the territory of Hawaii became our 50th state and its residents earned the right to vote in US presidential elections.
Perhaps more relevant to modern Hawaii's political culture and voting patterns than its rather short democratic tradition are its tragic social history and resultant demography. Originally numbering between 1/2 - 1 million, Hawaii's indigenous inhabitants were decimated during the 18th and 19th centuries in epidemics carried by early settlers from Spain, England and America. As indigenous Hawaiians died off, foreign investors settled in, planting sugar cane, coffee and pineapples and hiring Chinese, Japanese and later, Filipinos to work the fields. According to census bureau figures in 2000, only 23% of Hawaii's current, 1.2 million residents are considered "native Hawaiian", and of these 287,000 residents, only 8,244 are pure-blooded Hawaiians.4
Indeed, rather than sharing a common ancestry and singular cultural tradition, today's Hawaiian voters are a mixture of Polynesian, Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, European and American cultural and genetic influences. Although native Hawaiians still boast an enviably unique and strong ethno-cultural identity, that identity now tragically marks them as a notable minority amidst the overall population of the state. A rather sad "paradox"? It would seem so, from a number of viewpoints.
While the cultural and ethnic identity of Hawaii's natives is arguably something of a national treasure, this very identity may unconsciously serve as something of a political handicap. The native population sees itself as distinct and separate from the rest of the island's residents, and this sense of alienation is not necessarily conducive to political participation.
Furthermore, among the native population, there are elevated rates of poverty - another drawback to voting. While the over-all poverty rate for Hawaii is slightly lower than the national average (10.7% v. 12.4%) it is significantly higher than the rate experienced in older, homogenous, traditionally middle-class states like Minnesota, which has a poverty rate of only 7.9%.
In contrast to the ethnic bond experienced by native Hawaiians, the remaining 77% of Hawaii's population is significantly divided along financial, class, racial, and ethnic lines. This being the case, it is probably no stretch to say that non-native Hawaiians lack a common identity and purpose. According to the 2000 census, 17.5% of all Hawaiians were "foreign born" while the foreign born population for the country as a whole averaged only 11.1%. Minnesota's foreign born residents numbered only 5.3%. Additionally, a full 26.6% of all Hawaiians spoke a language other than English at home.5 Only 17.9% did so in the rest of the country, and 8.5% did so in Minnesota.6
Not only is the state's population diverse, but it’s new. Many people currently residing in Hawaii are new to the state, and a significant number of state residents are transient; that is, they are residing temporarily in Hawaii due to their current employment in the military or in the farming, hotel or related business sectors. These populations may not have had the time or may not have the inclination to put down roots and develop a permanent "stake" in the state's political future. Compared to a number of other states, Hawaii's population is fairly mobile, and mobility does is not conducive to voter registration or to electoral participation, per se.
Another electoral "paradox", if you will, that the state of Hawaii faces is that, in traditional times, all of Hawaii's land and resources were available for all Hawaiians to share, but today much of the state's industry and business is owned by mainland or foreign interests. Some of the largest businesses are farms, but, unlike the traditional farms of Minnesota, they are not small, family owned enterprises. Rather they have always been vast plantations, traditionally owned by wealthy settlers who built them into modern, entrepreneurial dynasties. Castle and Cooke, for instance, a real estate spin-off of the Dole pineapple company, owns a full 98% of all land on the island of Lanai, Hawaii's sixth largest land mass. Other large tracts of land are owned by the tiny percentage of native Hawaiians who can trace their lineage to ancient Hawaiian royalty. Absentee ownership and the concentrated ownership of land are not conducive to the development of the small, tight-knit communities that breed the type of civic responsibility evident in places like Minnesota or Vermont. Rather, such patterns of land ownership tend to attract transient populations of migrant farmers who work the land for a time, then move on.
In summary then, it seems that while Minnesota had all the "right stuff" to ring out the voters in 2000, Hawaii lacked most of those same social, cultural and economic conditions. Rather than a stable, homogenous population with a stake in the political process and a long democratic tradition of civic action, Hawaii has an outnumbered, partially-sidelined native population and a diverse and mobile, new population that seems to have had little time or inclination to develop the kind of roots, community, and commitment that foster rigorous political participation. Indeed, the state government itself rather new at this business of active participation in national democratic processes.
1. Shively, W. Phillips, Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science, McGraw-Hill, 10th edition, 2005, p. 237
2. Ibid, page 240
3. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Minnesota, Population http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota
4. HAWAIIAN ISSUES, A Dying Breed, http://webpages.charter.net/motuahina/ku/
5. US Census Bureau, Hawaii Quick Facts http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/15000.html
6. US Census Bureau, Minnesota Quick Facts http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/27000.html
RESEARCHING AND PREPARING YOUR POSITION PAPER
OK, you are almost fully briefed. Please note that this position paper assignment will demand significant independent research, but no required webliography or bibliography. When preparing your paper, do not simply list a number of personal opinions on the topic. In the strict sense of the word, an "opinion" is something that cannot be proven true or false according to objective evidence. Opinions are only as good as an author's ability to back them up with solid research, and, in order to receive a decent grade, your paper will have to demonstrate rigorous academic discipline, analysis and fact. Make sure you do all necessary research and thoroughly detail your paper.
Also, when completing the assignment, make sure not to rely on the work or opinions of other students. Students using other students' work will not earn credit and could find themselves in violation of UMUC policies designed to prevent plagiarism and/or academic dishonesty. As you probably know, such violations of university policy are not taken lightly by the administration, and in some universities, they could even warrant expulsion from the program. Please review the syllabus for a clarification of these issues, if necessary.
POSITION PAPER QUESTIONS - PICK ONE QUESTION ONLY
ANSWER ONE of the questions below. Be sure to list the question number as part of your answer.
1. Using our text and Yahoo, Google, or your preferred search engine, research the three types of elections below, and answer the question that follows: What are referendums, initiatives and recall elections? For what purposes are they used? Where and when? Answer in a minimum of 750 words, drawing from your sources and citing them appropriately.
2. Using Yahoo, Google, or your preferred search engine, research the two types of representation below and answer the question that follows: What is "proportional representation" (PR), and what is "single member district plurality" representation (SMDP)? Under which type of government does each system of representation usually occur, and which system of representation seems more democratic? Why? When answering the question, approach it from a global perspective. Do not limit your discussion to systems found only in the US, and be specific about what system and geographical area you are discussing at any particular point in your paper. Essay length: 750 word minimum.
3. Do a Yahoo search to find out how your state fared in voter turnout during the 2000 presidential elections. Then, using the census department website below, and any other website which you may discover on the internet, see if you can discover any social or economic factors which you think may have had an impact on voter turnout in your state. Essay length: 750 word minimum.
Census website - http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html
When submitting your paper, be sure to submit in the proper Assignment Folder, following all directions therein. Be sure to select disable the TFE, select a text box, and type only text.
Once again, good luck on this and on all future academic endeavors.
AB