Chris Watson. Feb 2015
L3 in Education and Training
Principles of Learning ( Objective 3.1 )

In 1938 John Dewey first put forward the idea that education should be concerned with experience – as opposed to abstract knowledge. This was an important shift in emphasis from traditional models of learning which saw the acquisition of knowledge for its own sake as a prima facia.

This acknowledgement of self direction and personal experience as reflected in the emerging humanistic school of psychology at the time; provided the foundation for contemporary adult learning theory which centres on a student centred active model where the student is seen as an active participant in the learning process. It is this contemporary approach which has been adopted in most FE / HE sectors today.
In ‘Towards an Applied Theory of Experimental Learning’ 1975 D. Kolb and R. Fry produced a cyclical model of the learning process which emphasised the active engagement of the learner through their own personal experiences.

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Kolb’s cycle consisted of four stages. The first Concrete Experience can be planned or accidental; the second Reflective Observation involves the learner actively thinking about the experience and its significance. Abstract Conceptualisation ( theorising ) is where the learner generalises from their experience so they can develop various ideas or concepts which can be applied in other similar situations. At the fourth stage, of Active Experimentation testing of the concepts or ideas in new situations takes place. This results in new concrete experiences, which in turn results in the beginning of a new learning cycle.
The appeal of the model is that it is cyclical ie the learning process does not reach a finite ending. Kolb describes how learner experience is translated into concepts which are then used to guide the choice of new experiences.
In this way, to learn effectively learners must shift from being observers to participants; from direct involvement to a more objective and analytical detachment. Trainers must therefore acknowledge that each learner will have a preferred learning style and trainers must acknowledge these to maximise effective movement around the cycle.

The development that it is the trainers’ or teachers responsibility to accommodate changes in training methods to maximise individual learner involvement; has been extended by a number of writers including Honey and Mumford ( 1986 ) who offered four inter-complimentary learner styles or ways of learning. They state that most people have their own individual preferred learning style. The implication therefore is that learning outcomes may also be influenced by the type of learning that is involved.
According to B.S.Bloom (1964) there are three main domains of learning and each domain has a different set of rules with it when training:
The first domain is the Psychomotor which deals with manual skills an example would primarily include this domain is constructing a wall as it involves the manipulation of tools supplies and/or equipment. As the name suggests, learning usually involves a cognitive aspect and a motor aspect combined – co-ordination between brain and hands. Many local Companies in our area separate out these forms of manual skill-training from other forms of employee development – and may have for example a distinctive technical training team which is very operationally focused.
The second, Cognitive Domain - involves thought processes or thinking skills. This could involve either memorising information or by promoting ways to develop an understanding of a given process. Memory relates to the assimilation & recall of factual information; and can be assisted by visual aids, testing, repetition or verbal association. By contrast, understanding is more of an active mental process and so will tend to involve linking thoughts together – looking for associations, differences and connections. In this way discussion groups, problem solving or brainstorming may assist understanding.
The third domain is concerned with teaching learners to learn attitudes – the Affective Domain. This area is concerned with how someone approaches what they do. Because attitudes are often non-visual – based on individual perceptions and past experiences; they are sometimes harder to uncover or influence. Approaches may include challenging existing approaches of beliefs, using role-plays and themed forum groups. Within Human Resources over the last 10 years there has been an increasing focus – not just on what employees do at work, but also how they approach it – leading to an increase in competency based interviews to select candidates; and competency profiling at appraisals to discuss actual behaviours demonstrated in a role.
For many trainers and lecturers, effective learning for broad based subject areas will therefore not only need to acknowledge different individual learning styles, but also influence outcomes on a number of levels—incorporating all three domains as appropriate – impacting on knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Opportunities to maximise any learning event are not only restricted to recognition of learner styles and the three domains; but also in how the programmes are planned , delivered and followed up. In Chapter 5 of Teaching in Further Education by CJ Russell, Eight principles of learning are detailed which when combined will ensure effective engagement by all learners.
For this assignment, I have focused on principle 1,2, 3 and 6 although recognise that all are equally valuable.

Principle One states that there should be a clear statement of what the learner should be able to do at the end of the session.
As a trainer I attempt to apply this principle in every learning situation. Potential clients will wish to know what will be covered in the content of a course and I find the clearest way to do this is to let them know what a learner will be able to do by the end of the session ( ie deliverable outputs) This also helps them to identify the appropriateness of the materials. The objective is a signpost for where we will be going and what the learner can expect to have gained at the end of the journey ; so they need to be succinct and invariably involve an adjective or doing word. ‘By the end of the session you will be able to list 5 types.. ‘ or ‘By the end of the workshop you will be able to construct a worthwhile objective for appraisals using the SMART technique ‘. Most groups are now familiar with setting SMART goals and I try to apply this technique to my own objectives – making them specific, measurable ( eg five types ), achievable ( so does not demotivate ), realistic and timed ( end of session ). Rigorous objectives help me as a trainer to revisit what I said we would achieve and make sure it has happened. If for some reason an individual eg cannot name 5 types of X; then it becomes my responsibility to revisit this & make sure we achieve this area.
The objective invariably will cover the performance or behaviour of the learner when demonstrating their improved ability and understanding ie not words like enjoy, appreciate or understand. If possible it will test understanding as well as recall and whenever appropriate will cover to what standard the performance must comply – eg legal standards, company standards, numbers to be completed etc.

Principle Two states that the covered should be relevant to the aims and objectives of the course or session.
When I first started training I used to create my intention or objectives for the session and then build the materials around these. However, when designing the material, some elements may be explored in much greater detail and may require 2 or 3 sessions each with their own evaluations & may uncover new secondary learning elements. For this reason I now write the objectives after I have designed the course. In this way the objectives clearly reflect the materials and help me to assess the flow of the session – allowing if necessary, for me to eliminate irrelevant information.
I also revisit these at the end of the session to confirm with learners they have been covered.

Principle Three states that the material should be organised in short, progressive, sequential steps, identified by the student’s previous knowledge and their individual needs.
Assessing students existing knowledge is an extremely difficult area. Some students may not know themselves and so you are reliant on the views of line management or other subjective opinion. Many companies will put all managers on a skills session as a way of ‘ticking the box’ and ensuring all have covered the material at the same time which can be useful for mandatory training needs such as health and safety, but less so for personal development related subjects.
One way I try to address this area is by having a discussion about the delegate group prior to the session with their sponsor to discuss needs and expectations. This helps to pitch the material at the right level and acknowledge extremes of learner ability. I also send out individual pre course objective planners which need to be discussed separately with both the programme leader and their own line manager to isolate the reasons for attending and agree what the learner hopes to achieve as a result of attending.
Following these measures I may amend any materials as required or alter the emphasis. The course will be constructed in bite sized pieces, starting with the most straightforward aspects and checking for existing understanding; before evaluating the impact of any new knowledge, skill or attitude. Where possible I use each element as a progressive block so that knowledge gained in the last segment can be used when mastered, to help support the next learning stage. A good example of this is on a train the trainer programme where trainees may learn some of the psychomotor elements of visual aids before using them as tools in a live session. Finally, the short progressive stages also allow me to test understanding and ensure that everyone is at the same level before progressing to the next step.

Principle Six states that the student should be actively involved in the learning process.
The Chinese proverb which supports most instructor training courses is best used to illustrate this principle. ‘I am told & I forget, I see and I remember’ I do and I understand’
Active involvement by learners works on a number of levels:

• It engages and involves the learner– offering a more rigorous platform for the retention and learning of the material. • Often involves the learner on a personal or small group level, heightening the learning experience and making it more memorable. • Follows more closely, Kolb’s Cycle – enabling the learner to reflect and draw conclusions and develop theories about the experience. • Reflects the shift in approach to learner centred solutions, providing recognition and respect for the valuable insights the learner can offer. • May enable the programme leader to develop new ways of looking at the subject and continued learning • Offer the programme leader the opportunity to provide more detailed feedback on learner performance based on observable behaviours or input.

Courses today invariably involve group, activity and break-out work. Acknowledging the work by Honey and Mumford , we also need to ensure that in addition to involving students in the session that they are involved in a variety of different ways to maximise interest levels by appealing to the different learner styles. For example a training session on negotiation for sales people may involve some role-plays ( favoured for example by activists ), but in doing so may alienate the sales administrator present who could be a theorist. To achieve balance a variety of approaches therefore need to be built in. These may include formal lectures, discussion groups, problem solving sessions, text analysis, video review, learner presentations, quizzes, case studies or PC based open learning.

GRADE A

Bibliography :

Teaching, Training & Learning: I Reece & S Walker. 2000
Training to Teach in Further and Adult Education: D Gray, - C Griffin, T Nasta, 2000
Core Personnel & Development: M Marchington & A Wilkinson 1997
Management Theory & Practice G A Cole 1995

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The Kolb Learning Cycle

Concrete experience Observations
& reflections

Formulation of abstract concepts and generalisations

Testing implications of concepts in new situations