Outline and evaluate psychological explanations of depression: at least two

Psychodynamic theories: * Outline : * Fixation at the oral stage (over or under gratification at the oral stage) results in dependency on caregiver and on other people. The dependant personality makes the constantly seek love and approval of others. * if the needs are not met the anger turns inwards ( later in life events like death, relationship break-up, job loss results in regression to the oral stage) results in depression. * Freud explained how, when a loved one is lost there is first a mourning period and then, after a while, life returns to normal. For some people however, the mourning period never seems to come to an end, they continue to exist in a state of permanent melancholia (depression). * Bibring psychodynamic theory states that depression is due to poor parenting. The child develops low self-esteem in contrast to the ideal self because the parents expect perfection on the child and can be critical.
Evaluation:
* This theory shows that early childhood experiences can affect vulnerability to depression, in later life the effects of early childhood experiences is supported by bowlby where the child attachment whether secure or insecure can affect later life relationship. * Freud’s theory is a good theory and is linked to the theory of Bowlby, insecure parent attachment. * Freud’s theory lacks falsifiability, because it cannot be operationalized and is based on the unconsciousness. * It is determinism, because children can make their own decision, but this theory considers they cannot. * Dependent personality traits are linked to depression but it may be the effect not the cause of the disorder. * Depressed people show more anger than non-depressed people but this is overt anger not inward anger that is linked to depression. * The evidence is not strong; there is difficulty in differentiating effects and causes of depression. * There is some research that support Freud concept of loss through withdrawal of affection. Barnes found that men who had lost their fathers through death during childhood scored higher on a depression scale than those whose fathers had not died. * Bifulco found evidence that children whose mothers died in childhood were more likely than other children to experience depression in later life. However, they found that association could be explained by the lack of care from parents and parent substitutes following the loss, rather than the loss itself.

* Socio-cultural * Major life events such as bereavement,unemployment,divorce etc. may be precipating factors in depression. Brown and Harris studies showed that about 55% of depressed people have at least one severe life event months before depression. This can be explained using the diathesis stress model. * There is evidence that social skills deficits do play a casual role in the beginning of depression. For example, low social competence has been found to predict the onset of depression in primary age children ( Cole), and poor interpersonal problem-solving skills has been found to predict increases in depression among adolescents ( Davila).
Evaluation:
* Life events information may not be recalled accurately as it is collected retrospectively. * Many people who experience serious life vents do not develop depression: stress may cause depression, but depression also causes stress, thus leading to a spiralling depression. for example, a partner who is depressed may cause greater problems in a marriage, and this then produces greater stress for the depressed individual ( Hammen)