CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
It is a well-known fact that an ‘Education Policy’ sets the vision and strategy for educational development, mobilizing support and cooperation for implementing the vision and strategy from a wide range of constituencies. In Zambia, several education Policies have been developed over time to provide a vision and strategies in the education provision. Major among these policies include the Education Policy Reforms of 1977, Focus on Learning of 1992 and the Educating Our Future of 1996. Many literatures have been written in an attempt to discuss the areas of special concern and other channels of education delivery outlined in the 1996 educating our future policy document and with relevant examples, showing how they have improved education provision in Zambia. Despite these efforts, dyslexia seems a major problem in Zambia which results in poor perfomances in schools especially at primary level.
Definition of Dyslexia Reports in the medical literature of „word blindness‟ go back to the time when books first became relatively widely available to the population in Europe and reading became popular (Morgan, 1896 cited in O‟Brien et al, 2005). The broad concepts of developmental dyslexia1 and specific learning difficulties (SLD) are connected to particular problems with reading. There are two key developments that have underpinned a huge leap in general knowledge and understanding about dyslexia. Recent policy encouraging inclusion of pupils with additional needs in mainstream schooling in the UK and elsewhere has been linked with legislation designed to support the educational needs of all children and people with disabilities, including dyslexics (Pirrie et al, 2006). The other key development relating to dyslexia concerns recent findings in the field of biological research. These relate to the underlying mechanisms of dyslexia and brain behaviour. There is also a significant body of research about the genetic determination of dyslexia and the importance of environmental influences (Grigorenko, 2001; Snowling & Hayiou-Thomas, 2006).
Dyslexia is viewed as the most commonly recognised form of specific learning difficulty (SLD). Other neurodevelopmental syndromes also considered as „specific learning difficulties‟ are: dyspraxia, specific language impairment (SLI) and hyperactivity and attention deficit (Deponio, 2005). An individual child may often exhibit more than one of these complex syndromes. It is argued that the co-occurrence of these disabilities may be caused by overlapping developmental pathways and interacting genetic and environmental influences (Duane, 2002).
Dyslexia is evident when accurate and fluent word reading and/or spelling develops very incompletely or with great difficulty. This focuses on literacy learning at the „word level‟ and implies that the problem is severe and persistent despite appropriate learning opportunities. (British Psychological Society, 2005: 18). It is for this reason that this report aimed at establishing the causes of dyelexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern province of Zambia.

Statement of the Problem
In Zambia a lot of children are failing their grade seven tests due to disparities in their English, Shona and Mathematics subjects. Such children have learning disabilities. The Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture’s evaluation of grade seven results show that pass rates are going down due to poor performance (Millennium Development Goals Status Report, 2010). The trends from 2000 upto 2012 show a constant decline in grade seven pupils’ performance. Despite the presence of the SPS and SNE and the institutionalisation of the remedial programme through CEO minute number 12 of 1987 a significant number of children continue to fail throughout the school system (Technical Committee of the Education for All Campaign in Zambia, 2005).
Blame has been placed on inadequate resources. Research has shown that the teacher factor is the most significant in this scenario. Such teachers should be able to assess children so as to improve their all-round performance. This can only be remedied by proper identification so that they can get proper interventions. Omari (1977) says the problem often encountered in African countries is lack of appropriate screening and assessment tests depicting local environment and cultural realities. Addressing children with Learning difficulties’ problems at the school level by first identifying them properly using the proposed assessment studies and providing appropriate teaching programmes will equip them with adequate learning skills which will prepare them for examinations and the world of work.
Assessment is the base for all interventions and if it is inappropriate it is reflected in the inadequacies of the tests and the inappropriateness of programmes to produce the desired results. What then is the assessment studies for identifying children with Learning difficulties at the primary school level in Zambia? How can it be constructed? Therefore, this report aimed at establishing the causes of dyelexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern province of Zambia.

OBJECTIVES
Main objective
To establish the major cause of dyslexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern Province of Zambia.
Specific objectives 1. To find out the school factors contributing to dyslexia 2. To establish the teacher factor contributing to dyslexia in primary schools 3. To investigate the pupil’s characteristics associated with dyslexia 4. To investigate the parent support variables associated with dyslexia in primary schools

RESSERCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the school factors contributing to dyslexia at Kangwena primary school
2. What are the teacher factors contributing to dyslexia in primary schools 3. What are the pupil’s characteristics associated with dyslexia

4. What parent support variables associated with dyslexia in primary schools

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
It is the truthful hope of the investigator that by carrying out this study of the cause of dyslexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern Province of Zambia and submitting solutions, the findings and recommendations would be of a great help to all stakeholders who have anything to do with the success or failure of the child in school; school administrators, classroom teachers, psychologists, teacher trainers, theorists, examination bodies, curriculum designers and professional associations. It will equally guide and guard government at all levels and ministries of education, school guidance counselors and parents. It is hoped that this study will help in improving the whole system in such a way as to induce better performance in the primary schools.
SCOPE OF STUDY
The present study used one primary school by the name of Kangwena primary school in Solwezi district of north western province of Zambia. The school produces students for the lower primary school certificate examinations conducted by ECZ.

LIMITATION OF STUDY
The research work covered only one sampled selected school in Solwezi district of North western province Zambia.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review has clearly shown a number of gaps in the literature. Firstly is that there is no literature on the assessment studies for the identification of learning difficulties in Zambia. An analysis of literature in general shows that there are assessment studies from the USA and UK being used to identify children with learning difficulties. But when we focus on the Zambia situation there is insignificant empirical evidence on the existence of different studies for identifying children with learning difficulties.
Mutepfa et al., (2007) and Tambara’s, (2001) writings show that the assessment and education of children with learning difficulties is going on Zambia, but it is not specific on whether this is appropriate or not. Mpofu (1999) and Tambara (2001) draw parallels with the American scenario. They allude to the position that the Zambiaan identification process through the use of a discrepancy studies is a copy of the American studies. This is fraught with controversy since it is problematic to confirm that the identified child has learning difficulties.
Peters (2001) as she interrogates her perceptions of the Learning difficulties field even goes further to conclude that the label of learning difficulties is not an appropriate one. Is it possible that the identification of these children has followed an ambiguous studies? A deficit studies which lays blame and stigmatises the recipients as it defines and identifies them. Such studies are needed on the Zambiaan scenario. The Zambiaan Institutionalised Remedial programme has never been evaluated since its inception in 1981. The American and British literature clearly stipulates the historical development of different studies of Learning difficulties and how these are being used to identify children with Learning difficulties in USA and UK. The Zambiaan situation has no study which describes in detail what is being done to identify children with learning difficulties. Such an omission by our academics has created a situation where Zambia ends up adopting any method that is in vogue. But the question is how do we know which studies are in use and what effect they have? It is the brief of this study to document in detail what is being done in the area of learning difficulties highlighting successes and failures from the point of view of the practitioners and the recipients. Such documentation is crucial if we are to come up with an assessment studies for the identification of children with learning difficulties. Practitioners will have a vantage point from which they can determine the defection of both assessment and intervention studies for African children. Questions have been raised of what should be included in an assessment studies. There is need therefore to scrutinise current practice and identify and tests aspects which are practical. Which tests and aspects need to be placed in the studies and which ones need to be discarded is an important dilemma which needs the focus of a study of this nature. Other studies therefore needs to find out what types of processes are going on and what they have put to identify children with learning difficulties. We need also to find out when identification starts. Is it starting at home? Is it embedded in the teaching practices occurring in the classroom? Is it an ad hoc aspect of teaching? All these questions should lead us to the construction of an assessment studies. Lastly the literature consulted has not provided a definite study to follow. When one examines the different studies they are presented in a linear historical format. Can we deduce from this presentation that assessment studies are hierarchical, starting with a basic studies graduating to a more complicated studies. Is it that there is no need for a single study but that each studies has its own benefits and disadvantages. Practitioners can select studies to suit specific environments and individual children. It is true that children are different and exhibit more differences if they have a learning disability. A child’s learning though their differences make it easier, most of the times to teach them. But when problems occur these are unique differences and need to be addressed using an IEP to reduce, or extinguish them. Can we assume that the above occurs when children are being assessed? Wilson and Cleland (1988) talk of an Individual Assessment Programme (IAP) for each child. We should ascertain if schools are identifying children by addressing their individual learning difficulties through IAPs. Detailed analysis of these should reveal their efficiencies and deficiencies to be included in the constructed assessment studies.
This literature has shown that there are significant gaps in the knowledge on learning disabilities in general and specifically on the assessment studies of identifying children with learning difficulties in Zambia. Due to the existing gaps, it is for this reason that information on the subject is lacking. Such studies clearly show that the theoretical frameworks for the assessment of learning difficulties are either mechanistic reductionist or holistic constructivist. The former concentrates on assessment of various components of the performance of the child with learning difficulties and the latter focuses on the whole child’s performance. Nevertheless, the aim of this research report was to establish the major cause of dyslexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern Province of Zambia.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
The study was purely a non-experimental investigation. The study was also descriptive in nature. This is due to the fact that it was conducted in an uncontrolled and natural setting. A survey approach was used to elicit information from respondents pertaining the major cause of dyslexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern Province of Zambia. Interviews were also used to investigate in the major cause of dyslexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern Province of Zambia. 3.2 SAMPLING DESIGN AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE
3.2.1 SAMPLE SIZE
The sample of this research consisted of pupils and teachers at Kangwena primary school. Respondents were selected using simple random method of sampling to get the sample of 40 respondents (i.e. 5 teachers and 35 pupils) from Kangwena primary school. Using this method, students from different grades to answer questionnaires and participate in the Focus Group Discussion were carefully chosen.

3.3. SAMPLING PROCEDURE

To select the list of participants who were included in this research, simple random sampling, and random tables were generated to select 40 pupils from Kangwena primary school using the class registers for each grade. This was done in order to ensure that all current pupils were given a non zero and equal chance of being used as participants in the study.

3.4 DATA COLLECTION

Given that this study involved different research strategies, the study employed survey questionnaires, and interviews to obtain both Quantitative and qualitative data.
Quantitative data from the sample was collected using questionnaires with both open and closed ended questions. This instrument was used because respondents are literate. Furthermore, closed ended questions were used in the questionnaires for they are easy to answer as they have already prepared answers from which the respondents chose from. This therefore makes data coding, entry and analysis much easier while open ended questions were used to get more detailed information on the subject.
It is also important to note that the questionnaire was piloted/pre-tested before the actual data collection exercise in order to check for consistence, accuracy and ambiguity. A total of 15 questionnaires were used in the pre-test in Kasupi primary school which has a number of features or characteristics as the target population.

Ethnographic interviews provided an opportunity for respondents to express and clarify particular opinions or views thereby leading to the discovery of findings that are a reality in social life. This also enabled the researcher to probe participants where they needed to provide more information. This as well granted the researcher a deeper understanding and meaning attached to the existence of the problem. This method was applied to solicit information from both male and female informants.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

Since the study was a mixed one employing both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection, the researcher used different data analytic tools such as SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), Epi-data and excel to analyze quantitative data while thematic and content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data from interviews.
The data that was collected using semi-structured questionnaire was checked for uniformity, consistency, accuracy and ambiguity. The raw data collected was subjected to coding and entered in the computer using Epi-data. This program was ideal for quantitative data as it had an advantage over other programs in that it permits skip instructions and automation. After that, the data was exported to statistical package for social sciences software (SPSS 16.0) via a data entry query for analysis. Frequency tables and cross tabulation were produced in SPSS 16.0 where as graphs were created in Ms-Excel. This program (SPSS) was chosen because it has in built functions that make mathematical manipulation and cross-tabulations of variables easy. It was also used as it is easy to use and it is easily accessible unlike other programs such as STATA.
Qualitative data obtained from interviews was transcribed and then manually analyzed using thematic and content analysis.

3.6 ETHICAL MATTERS

According to Bless and Smith (1995: 102), throughout the process of data collection the problem of persuading participants to cooperate with the researcher is ever present. Lack of cooperation can lead to non-response, incompletely filled out questionnaires and to unreliable results. Since this study involved human beings as subjects of inquiry consent of subjects were sought. Prospective respondents were thus told the purpose and benefits of the study especially to the researcher. Emphasis was made to make it clear that the research was purely an academic one in order to increase the levels of participation and to reduce non response cases. Subjects were availed with information as to how they were selected in order to reduce uncertainties and generally accepted ethical rights of respondents like confidentiality; anonymity and voluntary participation will be respected.

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS
Introduction
The main objective of the study was to establish the major cause of dyslexia in primary schools a case study of Kangwena primary school of Northern Province of Zambia. A number of significant causes were found to be the major cause of dyslexia at Kangwena primary school.
SECTION 1: DESCRIPTIVE BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS
This section presents the background characteristics of the respondents who participated in the study. These are sex, age, marital status, area of residence, year of study, employment status and type of sponsor.
FIGURE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY SEX

Fig 1 above represents the sex of the respondents that were included in the study. Out of the 40 participants, 73% of the respondents were females, while 27 % of the respondents were males. This indicates that in the majority of the students who participated in the research are females.

FIGURE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF REPONDENTS BY AGE

Age Group In years | Frequency | Percent (%) | Below 5 years | 2 | 5 | 5 - 10 | 27 | 67.5 | 11 -15 | 2 | 5 | 16 - 20 | 1 | 2.5 | 21-25 | 3 | 7.5 | 26-30 | 2 | 5 | 30+ | 3 | 7.5 | Total | 40 | 100 |

Table 2 above shows a summary of the age distribution of the respondents. Among the 40 respondents in the study, there were seven (7) different age groups reported which ranged from 0 to 30+ years. From the sample, 5% of the respondents were in the age group 0-5 years, while 67.5% of the sample consisted of respondents in the age group 6- 10 years considerably higher than 5% of the respondents who were in the 11-15 years age group. Those with ages in the age group 16-20 years consisted only 2.5% of the respondents. The age groups 21-25 and 26-30 years had 7.5% and 5% of the respondents respectively. The remaining 7.5% of the respondents were aged 30 years and above.

FIGURE 3: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY MARITAL STATUS

The graph above shows the distribution of respondents by marital status. From the above, it can be seen that the majority of the respondents were single and these represented 82.5% of the respondents, 15% of the respondents were married while the remaining 2.5% were widowed. Therefore, it can be noted that the majority of the students that reside in boarding houses are single and very few are married and widowed.
FIGURE 8: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY AREA OF RESIDENCE

Figure 8 above shows the respective areas of residence of the respondents. From the chart, it can be noted that 85% of the respondents reside in rural areas while 15% of the respondents reside in urban areas.

FIGURE 9: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY CLASSIFICATION OF RESIDENTIAL AREA

Figure 9 above illustrates the classification of residential areas where the respondents come from. The bulk of the respondents live in low density areas and this is represented by 43% of the responses. This is followed by medium density areas were 37% of the respondents live. Lastly, high density areas had the lowest proportion as these areas only accounted for 20% of the respondents.

FIGURE 10: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PARTICIPATION IN RELIGOUS ACTIVITY

Figure 10 above shows the religious participation of respondents. From the chart, it can be noted that 60% of the respondents participate in religious activities while 40% of the respondents do not participate in any form of religious activity.
FIGURE 11: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY RELIGIOSITY

Figure 11 above illustrates the classification of respondents according to how they rate of their religiosity. The statistics show that 12.5% of the respondents are very active in religious activities while 42.5% indicated being active in religious activities. The other 35% indicated not being active in religious activities. The remaining 10% represented the non response cases.

FIGURE 12: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY CATEGORY OF EMPLOYMENT | Formal | Percent (%) | Informal | Percent (%) | N/ Employed | Percent (%) | Students | 8 | 20 | 15 | 37.5 | 8 | 20 | Parent | 1 | 2.5 | 7 | 17.5 | 1 | 2.5 | Guardian | 29 | 72.5 | 8 | 20 | 2 | 5 | N/A | 1 | 2.5 | 4 | 10 | 5 | 12.5 | N/R | 1 | 2.5 | 6 | 15 | 24 | 60 | Total | 40 | 100 | 40 | 100 | 40 | 100 |

The table (12) above shows the classification of respondents according to their or parent’s or guardian’s category of employment. It was found from the study that 20% of the respondents were formally employed while 2.5% indicated having parents who are formally employed and the other 72.5% of the respondents reported having guardians who are formally employed. The remaining 2.5% represented the non applicable and non response cases respectively. It was also found from the study that 37.5% of the respondents were in informal employment while 17.5% of the respondents indicated having parents who are in informal employment and the other 20% of the respondents reported having guardians who are in informal employment. The remaining 10% and 15% represented the non applicable and non response cases respectively. It was found from the study that 20% of the respondents were not employed while 2.5% indicated having parents who are not employed and the other 5% of the respondents reported having guardians who are not employed. The remaining 12.5% and the 60% represented the non applicable and non response cases respectively. Level of education of students’ parents/guardians The level of education for parents and guardians has an influence in the way the students can be guided in their school life. The bar graph below shows the distribution of the level of education for parents and guardians. Distribution of the level of education for parents and guardians From the study, it was found that most parents or guardians (57%) had reached primary level while only (7%) had terminated their education in primary level. It was noted that educated parents had fewer children in their families and their record of maintaining discipline was good. This paves way for teacher counselors to easily discharge their teaching services. Teaching methods are deeply entrenched in the assumption that the control of student’s behaviours by their parents and teachers is detrimental to their development. The main aim of this approach is encouraging independence among children and also for them to adopt their own behaviours. However parents are required to embrace the sole responsibility of ensuring proper observance of good discipline among school age children. SECTION B: THE SCHOOL FACTORS The school factors identified were limited teaching materials, inadequate textbooks and less professionally trained teachers. The teacher factors that were found to contribute to the low academic performance were incidence of lateness to school, incidence of absenteeism, use of the local language in teaching, inability to complete the syllabi, less interest in children’s understanding of lesson and not hardworking. The pupil characteristics found significant were absenteeism and regularity in school, truancy, use of local language in the classroom, lack of interest and joy in the teachers lessons and little help with studies at home. The parental support variables causing pupils to perform poorly academically were their inability to provide breakfast, textbooks and basic school needs, less interaction with children’s teachers and less involvement in the Parent Teacher Association (PTA). School factors Adequacy of teaching and learning materials (TLMs) Teaching and learning materials have been found to be less adequate in the Kangwena primary schools than in the high achieving schools. The materials are mostly visual and these include wall pictures, chalk and chalkboards, maps, atlases, charts and magazines. The TLMs aid teaching and learning because pupils are able to see and often feel what the teacher teaches. They stimulate ideas, demand an active response from the learners and provide enjoyment. The lesson becomes more alive and understanding and grasping of the major concepts become easier. Since there were less TLMs in the Kangwena primary schools, the situation made it difficult for the pupils to understand the lessons and this led to lower performance because lack of suitable teaching materials and accommodation tends to reduce the effectiveness of teaching. As Broom (1973) pointed out, the availability and creative use of media makes pupils to learn more and retain better what they learn. This in turn improves their performance. However, this situation was limited in the Kangwena primary schools. The figure below shows the respondent’s view on adequacy of teaching and learning materials.

Availability of textbooks The study considered the availability of Mathematics and English Language textbooks. The results show that the Kangwena primary schools had fewer textbooks to use than the high-achieving schools. The Mathematics and the English Language textbooks are the basic textbooks which are used in the schools. They provide a common resource for widening general and specialist vocabulary. Exercises are often given and pupils use the textbooks to do their exercises and assignments. This enables the pupils to understand the lessons better and to check from their own performances if they have grasped what has been taught. Personal copies of set texts can be taken home by students for common homework tasks. This facilitates parental involvement in teaching and learning. Below were the respondent’s perception on availability of text books. The lack of textbooks in the Kangwena primary school implied that the pupils were not be able to do a lot of exercises which in turn made them receive little or no attention and feedback to enhance their gained knowledge and improve their academic performance. Professional qualification of teachers Kangwena primary schools had fewer professionally trained teachers than the high achieving schools. Professional qualifications are important in education. The professional skill of the teacher ‘establishes a productive classroom atmosphere from the start by means of good organization and carefully planned teaching structures’ (Farrant, 1980: 169). Professional competence often transforms into high quality of teaching with the expectation that this would influence the learning of pupils. However in the Kangwena primary school the limited number of professional teachers showed that they were not able to use their teaching skills (feedback, questioning, explaining things clearly to pupils, exercises good class control and discipline, deals with problems effectively, creates specific kinds of climate settings for different lessons) to explain lessons making sure that the pupils understood and coped with the amount of knowledge given to them. The outcome was that the pupils in these schools performed poorly. SECTION C: TEACHER FACTORS Incidence of lateness and absenteeism The study shows that teachers in the Kangwena primary schools got to school late and were often absent from school. When teachers get to school late, they do not take part in the morning assembly and start classes on time. Lateness and absenteeism reduce the amount of instructional time and this results in the syllabi not being completed. Teachers from the Kangwena primary schools therefore were not able to cover a lot more of the syllabus before the end of the year resulting in a lower output of work by the pupils. Use of language in teaching In the high-achieving schools, English Language was used as a medium of instruction while in the Kangwena primary school, the local language was used together with English as the medium of instruction. In Zambia, the language policy states that English should be used as a medium of instruction from Primary upwards. The use of English is important because most Zambian textbooks are in the English Language and English is the official language in Zambia. All tests and examinations are conducted in English therefore a working knowledge of the language is necessary. The use of the local language by the teachers created a deficiency in the pupils which made them unable to understand the textbooks they needed to use and this ultimately resulted in the low academic performance of the pupils. Completion of syllabuses English Language and Mathematics syllabuses were the only focus of the study. The results showed that fewer teachers in the Kangwena primary completed the syllabuses than the teachers in the high-achieving schools. The completion of the syllabus for each subject in each class provides the foundation for the next class to be built upon. When the syllabus is not completed, content that should be taught in the next class which is based on the previous class could not be taught. As this continued, there would be a backlog of content not taught and this would affect the performance of the pupils. Since the subject matter syllabuses tend to be spiral, the non-completion of a syllabus tends to have a cumulative effect on the pupils such that as they move from grade to grade, they encounter materials they do not have the foundation to study. In the final analysis, poor performance is the result. Interest in children’s understanding of lesson The study showed that teachers in the Kangwena primary schools showed less concern about the children’s understanding of the lessons when compared with the teachers of the high-achieving schools. Understanding of the lesson is linked with output and outcome. The greater the understanding of the lesson, the higher the output of the pupils from exercises, assignments and tests. Since teachers in the Kangwena primary showed less concern about children’s understanding of the lessons, the outcome was that their output in terms of academic performance was low. As Aggarwal (1994:191) pointed out, “best learning takes place when the teacher is successful in arousing the interest of the students. The guidance of the teacher is mainly a matter of giving the right kind of stimulus to help them to learn”. Teacher work habit Teachers in the Kangwena primary showed less commitment to work in the schools than the teachers in the high-achieving schools. Teacher commitment and work habits were low. The teachers lacked enthusiasm and were unable to teach effectively. This attitude made the pupils not to be able to learn well and acquire much classroom content and knowledge resulting in the low performance. This supports Lockheed et. al. (1991) assertion that lack of motivation and professional commitment produce poor attendance and unprofessional attitudes towards students which in turn affect the performance of the students academically. SECTION C: PUPIL CHARACTERISTICS Incidence of lateness, absenteeism and regularity in school Lateness and absenteeism came out as two of the major problems in the Shama sub- metro schools. Pupils in these schools were often late and absent from school when compared with the high-achieving schools. In the figure below are incidents of being late and absent from school. The effect of lateness and absenteeism and irregular school attendance is that material that is taught was difficult to understand when studied on one’s own. Continued missing of classes also results in loss of content and knowledge. They lost in terms of what was taught. The result is that assignments and exercises were not being properly and correctly done. The consequence was the low academic performance. Language use Pupils in the Kangwena primary schools used the local language (Luvale) among themselves in the classroom while the pupils in the high-achieving schools used English Language mostly among themselves. The prevalence of the use of the local language means that they would lack a lot of vocabulary in English, which would be needed to understand teachers’ lessons and textbooks they read. It affected their assignments and exercises which were often in the English Language. These ultimately affected their academic performance. Enjoyment of teachers’ lessons Pupils in the Kangwena primary schools did not enjoy their teachers lessons while the pupils in the high-achieving schools enjoyed their teachers lessons. A number of factors would be responsible for this. Teachers in the Kangwena primary schools showed less commitment to teaching, there was inadequate teaching and learning materials and the teachers were less professional. Since the pupils did not enjoy the lessons, understanding of the lessons and the desire to learn or study were reduced and this resulted in low academic performance. Help with studies at home Pupils from the high-achieving schools received more help with their studies and homework at home than the pupils in the Kangwena primary schools. Help with studies and homework is a supplement of schoolwork and those who receive additional help usually would do better in school. Since pupils in the Kangwena primary schools could not receive much help at home, their academic performance tended to be low. SECTION D: PARENTAL SUPPORT VARIABLES Provision of breakfast Most parents from the Kangwena primary schools did not provide breakfast for the pupils as in the high-achieving schools. Breakfast plays a very important part in the teaching and learning process in the morning. It makes the pupils alert in class and helps them to concentrate on the lessons being taught. However, when pupils are hungry they would not be active in class and would not concentrate on the lessons. This was the case of the pupils in the Kangwena primary schools. The lack of breakfast meant that they were not too active in class and could not concentrate and this affected their academic performance. They needed stable frame of mind to enable them concentrate on learning and improve their output. Provision of textbooks Important to pupil learning is availability of relevant textbooks and supplementary readers. These materials are the tools for children’s learning. It was found that many parents of the pupils in the Kangwena primary schools did not purchase English and Mathematics textbooks for their wards as the Government supply was woefully inadequate. Textbooks enable the pupils to follow the teacher’s sequence of presentation and aids in understanding of lessons. The lack of textbooks meant pupils were handicapped with respect to grasping the content taught and competing class exercises and assignments and acquisition of vocabulary. The result was the low academic performance. Provision of basic needs The study showed that less than 50% of the pupils in the Kangwena primary schools had all their school basic needs such as school uniform, school bag, exercise books, pencils, ruler and pens provided. This meant that the majority of the pupils did not have their basic school needs provided for by the parents. The lack of basic school needs could not provide a stable mind and conducive environment for the pupils to study. They were not be able to concentrate on the classroom learning process and perform creditably. Lack of exercise books and writing materials result in the situation where the pupils could not do any assignments in the class but became on lookers or by standers. This in essence led to low academic performance. Interaction with children’s teachers Parents from the high-achieving schools interacted more with their children’s teachers than the parents of pupils from the Kangwena primary schools. Interactions with teachers enables the parents to know what problems their children are encountering in school and what could be done to deal with the problems. It would also put the pupils on the alert and then study in school because they would know that their parents would come and inquire about their performances in school. In the Kangwena primary, since interactions were limited, parents were not able to know about what was happening in the schools regarding their children. As such they could not provide much guidance and help to make their children’s performance improve. Involvement in the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) The study showed that parents from the Kangwena primary schools had little involvement in the PTA in the schools compared with the parents from pupils in the high- achieving schools. Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs) discuss the welfare of the school, the teachers and the pupils. When parents are not involved, some of the problems facing the school are not attended to and this does not create a conducive environment for teaching and learning in the school. This affects both the teachers and the pupils’ output. This was the situation in the Kangwena primary schools. The lack of parents involvement in the PTAs meant that teachers and pupils in a way were not motivated enough to study since the school’s problems such as lateness, absenteeism and inadequate infrastructure, which parents would be able to solve, were not attended to. The consequence was the low academic performance. Recommendations * Regular sensitization meetings and community non-formal education classes should be organized within the Kangwena primary communities to inform parents about the value of education to children, the community and the nation. * Parents should be encouraged to consider the school as their own and not for the assembly or the government since 92% believed that the schools do not belong to them but to the Government or other groups like churches. * It is recommended that part of the Fund be invested in employment-generating activities for parents, especially those who could not afford breakfast for their children, in the sub-metro. This would increase their income levels so that they can provide food, especially breakfast for the pupils. * Accommodation needs to be provided for the teachers since about 60% of them live three kilometres or more from their schools. Conclusion The purpose of the study was to identify the factors that cause the poor academic performance of pupils in the Kangwena primary schools in Solwezi. To identify these factors, comparisons were made with high achieving schools within the same area. It has been found that certain factors that are believed to be responsible for general poor academic performances were present in both school groups. These factors include large class sizes, lack of supervision, school fees not promptly paid, low frequency of in-service training for teachers, irregular staff meetings, and school infrastructure and materials. Though the presence of these factors affect teaching and learning, the effect in both groups were the same and could therefore not be peculiar problems leading to low academic performance in the Kangwena primary. However, the study has been able to identify factors that pertain solely to the Kangwena primary schools. These factors attributed to teachers, pupils, parents and the school environment were primarily responsible for the low academic performance of the sub-metro. It must be emphasised that these factors generally do not operate in isolation. Teacher absenteeism and lateness for example would result in incompletion of the syllabus and would also affect pupil’s motivation, enthusiasm, zeal and commitment to learn. Improving the academic performance of the pupils in the Kangwena primary schools should not involve paying attention to individual issues discussed. It should involve a total package.

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