...Principles of Environmental Science Jennia McCray Env/100 June 30, 2011 Professor Elshorafa Principles of Environmental Science Environmental Science is a multidisciplinary field that combines information from many different punitive areas of study, such as biology, geography, chemistry, geology, physics, economics, sociology (mostly demography or the study of populations), cultural anthropology, natural resources, management, agriculture, engineering, law, politics, and ethics. Environmental science and nature’s environmental problems we faces are generally complex and are not as simple as the meaning portrays. The goals of environmental scientists are to try to form basic principles about how the natural world operates. They then use these principles to develop applicable solutions, mostly derived from scientific knowledge, to address environmental problems. Using scientific evaluation is the key to successfully achieving a solution to any environmental problem. Before this, you must completely understand what science is opposed to what it is not. Science is not just a body of knowledge, as some see it to be, but much rather a collection of facts about the natural world. In addition, science is also a systematic way to investigate the natural world, what we refer to as the dynamic process. Science looks to decrease the conspicuous complexity of earth to general principles, those principles help to make predictions, solve problems and create new insights. These principles...
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...we are dealing with human subjects, their forms of thought, their types of practice, what are the respective roles of explanation and interpretation, however finely or coarsely they are distinguished? This summary discusses three accounts that can help us understand the roles of explanation and interpretation in studying or dealing with human subjects and these are the exclusivism account, the inclusive account, and the interactionism account. The exclusive account/position holds that interpretation and explanation exclude one another. The inclusive position maintains that explanation is and must be subordinated to interpretation. Inclusivists hold that the enterprise of interpretation always encapsulates explanatory pursuits. The interactionism account, proposes that interpretation and explanation inform each other. Novel interpretations employ the categories of theories already in place, whereas novel explanations depend upon the discovery of new theories which, in turn, depends upon the sort of reorganization of knowledge that interpretative pursuits involve. On the interactive view these two processes complement one another. The Exclusivism Account Exclusivism takes two forms, one emphasizing the centrality of explanation, the other the centrality of interpretation. The first group of exclusivists, consisting of behavioral psychologists, sociologists, and others, holds that the only methods for systematic inquiry are the methods of the natural sciences. The second, which focuses...
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...the Universe? Reflections on a Grain of Salt. The word “know” is an action verb with both transitive and intransitive meanings. It is the intransitive form that lacks explanation. Science can explain the “how” and the “why,” but it cannot bring meaning to either. Science and faith are both required for a complete picture of the universe. To Know, or Not to Know: That is the Question I have been a student of Carl Sagan since my youth. His way of explaining very complex scientific facts and theories spoke at my level. I can still remember how he compared human civilization to the age of the universe: if the age of the universe were a 12-month calendar year, recorded human civilization would be represented as the last 10-seconds of that year. Wow! I could get my brain around that idea. This seemed to be the answer to all the science, mathematics, and English questions I had as a high school student trying to make sense of it all. Once again Carl Sagan applies his ability to bring the very complex to the level of the average junior scientist in his paper titled Can We Know The Universe? Reflections on a Grain of Salt. In his essay, he uses a single grain of salt to illustrate that there are more sodium and chlorine atoms in that grain of salt then there are neurons in the human brain. There are some 10 quadrillion atoms in a grain of salt, but only about 100 trillion neurons in the human brain. The implication is that it would be impossible to know all 10...
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...User Interface Design. MacMillan Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Vol. 4, London: MacMillan, 453-458.Keywords: human-computer interaction, applied cognitive science, design, computer.Contents listIntroduction Cognitive Science and design The Basics of Human-Computer Interaction Cognitive Design Guidelines: from psychophysics to semiotics Beyond guidelines Cognitive theories and models in HCI Developing user-centered design methods Summary Bibliography GlossaryArticle definitionThis article covers the basic issues that the field of cognitive science raises in the design and testing of new digital technologies for human use.1. IntroductionThe design of computer interfaces that are usable and easily learned by humans is a non-trivial problem for software developers. As information technologies mediate many of the activities we now perform routinely as part of our lives, the attention paid to the process of human-computer interaction is enormous. Since much of the process of interaction is cognitive in nature, involving perception, representation, problem solving, navigation, query-formulation and language processing, the theories and methods of cognitive science are viewed as directly relevant to such concerns. The result has been the emergence of an applied cognitive science for software design that is known as the field of Human-Computer Interaction or HCI.2. Cognitive Science and designTraditional cognitive science approaches to HCI and user interface design model the user...
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...The History of Psychology & Scientific Practice Modern Psychology is somewhat regarded as a science, I dispute this but, respect that science has made a claim to the modern practice concerning the control of experiments, the theories made from observations of these experiments and that of the many journals written. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1926) is known as the father of psychology due to his laboratory (Leipzig, Germany 1879) of experimental psychology being the first to exist. The lab gave way for the controlled environment in which to study and document the experiments of Wundt and his students thus making it a science and not the relative discipline of Philosophy that had been the domination of the former Psychologists that date back to the 4th and 5th Century (Socrates / Plato / Aristotle). Wundts Physiologist method was relatively short lived and by the early twentieth century John Watson had begun to question Wundt and suggested it was behavior that need be studied. Behaviorism of course can only be observed (albeit deliberated actions to gain a behavior result), John Watson of course used his behaviorism studies on his own children and two of which did comit suicide. I cannot see how behaviorism is a science? the only evidence obtained is that of a theorists conclusions, it is biased and the actions taken to create a behaviour are cruel and unjustifiable (in animals and or humans) Most of Watsons work was basically cruel applications of treatment as a means to result in...
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... Philosophy 100 Words: 1404 4th April 2013 A Brief Introduction of Libertarianism and Its Dilemma Do all of our actions have a cause, and are we merely a functioning object following determinism? Or do we control our own behaviours, so we have free will? This long time argument has been extended into two opponent theories: Libertarianism and Hard Determinism. Both of these theories, who are fans of incompatibilism, indicate determinism and free will cannot exist at the same time. One the contrary, the compatibilist theory, Soft Determinism, asserts that determinism and free will can be consistent. As believers and defenders of free will, even though libertarians seem to have strong appeals with our common sense, many of them have a problem defining what freedom is. Some libertarians try to come up with a major argument, agent causation, to reject Determinism. But the argument faces its own dilemma. Since Libertarianism has many problems which do not seem to have any solution, I prefer to choose the position of Hard Determinism in this paper. The first appeal of Libertarianism, which aims to convince people to believe in free will, claims that people are so particular that they are detached from other things. No laws can control people’s behaviours, and therefore “they are free”. Regardless humans have souls or not, we are still the controller of our own behaviours (Conee and Sider, 2005, p.119). The ideology of Libertarianism is very convincing...
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...social sciences. Sociology is the outcome of man's search for a more valid, and precise knowledge about the nature of man and the society. The word 'Sociology' is derived from the Latin word 'Societus' meaning 'society and the Greek word 'logos' meaning 'study or science'. Thus, the etymological meaning of 'Sociology' is the 'science of society'. In other words, we can say Sociology is the study of man's behaviour in groups or of interaction among human beings of social relationships and the processes by which human group activity takes place. Definitions: To make the study more clear, it is wise on our part to discuss some of the definitions given by famous sociologists. Unfortunately, there is no short-cut definition of Sociology so far. It has been defined in a number of ways by different sociologists, but no single definition of Sociology has yet been accepted as completely satisfactory. Auguste Comte, the founding father of Sociology, defines Sociology "as the science of social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation." Kingsley Davis defines Sociology as a "general science of society." Durkheim defines Sociology as the "science of social institution". Harry M. Jonson "Sociology is the science that deals with social groups." Of the various definitions given by sociologists, the definition of Ginsberg seems to be more satisfactory. Moris Ginsberg defines Sociology "as the study of human...
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...Sara Ossaba English 101 April 30, 2015 Religion and Science In the beginning there was darkness. Then there was light. Then there was consciousness. Then there were questions and then there was religion. Why are we? Where do we come from? Why does the world and nature act as it does? What happens when we die? Religion tended to the answer to all these questions with the stories of gods and other supernatural forces that were beyond the understanding of humans. Where science seems able to explain everything with prove and evidence right before your eyes. Science deals with the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. ‘’Creationism", another view on man's origin, means belief in creation in a more general sense. A Creationist may believe that the earth is billions of years old, and that simple forms of life evolved gradually to form more complex forms including humans. In addition to that belief, however, is the belief that a supernatural Creator initiated the life process and continues to control it. The most reasonable view on the origin of mankind is known as naturalistic evolution. It means a gradual process by which one kind of living creature changes into something different; evolution that is not directed by any purposeful intelligence. Another part of the idea is that more complex...
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...religion is, until someone asks us to define it.” Religion can be defined as the human quest for, experience of and response to the holy or sacred. It is said the universal human activity expresses itself in three ways: 1) in thought, 2) in action, and 3) in fellowship. In contrast, science uses methods to gain knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop theories through interpretation of the facts or calculations by experiments and can only answer the infinite questions of the universe that can be observed and measured. The relationship between religion and science has been a subject of study for centuries. It has been addressed by philosophers, theologians, and scientists. There have been many diverse perspectives from different regions, cultures and historical periods. Some state there is a conflict between religion and science, others disagree and others offer there is little interaction. Science and religion generally pursue knowledge of the universe using different methodologies. Science acknowledge reason and evidence, while religions include revelation, faith and sacredness. Despite these differences, most scientific and technical innovations prior to the scientific revolution were achieve by societies organized by religious traditions. Much of the scientific method was pioneered by Islamic scholars and later Christians. Regarding religion and science, Albert Einstein states: “For science can only ascertain “what is”, but not what should be, and outside of its domain...
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...applied behavioral science built on concepts contributed by a number of related behavioral disciplines. The most influential members of the Organizational Behavior team are psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Study of these four disciplines helps one understand the underlying principles that build the overall science of Organizational Behavior. A simple composite definition of Organizational Behavior could be a science that studies the behavior, influence, relationship, and activity within groups. The discipline of Organizational Behavior helps one apply the knowledge and understanding gained from the study of groups to manipulate the activities of the group to achieve specific goals. Organizational Behavior Disciplines It frequently requires a team to accomplish a task. Each member of a well-balanced team contributes a meaningful part of the entire effort to complete the task successfully. This team concept can be applied to the study of Organizational Behavior. Organizational Behavior is an applied behavioral science built on concepts contributed by a number of related behavioral disciplines (Robins & Judge, 2009). The most influential members of the Organizational Behavior team are psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology (see Appendix). Study of these four disciplines helps one understand the underlying principles that build the overall science of Organizational Behavior. Psychology Psychology is a science that tries to “measure...
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...One genre fits all? Whether you prefer a romance, an action or a thriller, Science Fiction seems to fit it all in but still have its own unique identity. Is this why it appeals to so many? As Reported By ReJohnson. Looking around at movie advertisements shown on billboards, bus stands and television, it’s hard to miss the growing popularity of science fiction movies and books in modern society. Though still not as popular as genres such as Action and romance, many people have found an interest and love for science fiction. Over the past decade, there have been over 300 Science Fiction movies released. Statistics show that 5 in every 10 movies released in today’s society is science fiction. Many of them hitting the top ten list and have been nominated or have won major awards (e.g. Avatar which won 3 Oscars, the Golden Globe etc.). So why does it appeal to modern day audiences? It seems that in modern society, no matter how you look at it, Science fiction is a genre that can appeal to each individuals taste making it appealing to almost anyone. Though it is mainly based around an imagined future and scientific and technological advances, directors and producers have created a scale as to how ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ the science fiction movie is. While Hard Science Fiction focuses mostly on the speculation of the future as seen in the award- winning Matrix, Soft science Fiction focuses more on the entertainment of the audience and allowing them to escape from reality as seen in the...
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...French revolution and as modern science and technology gave birth to the industrial revolution. During this time, European society experienced violent conflict and feelings of alienation. Comte spent most of his life developing a philosophy for a new social order amidst all the chaos and uncertainty. He rejected religion and royalty, focusing instead on the study of society which he named “sociology”. He broke the subject into two categories: i. Forces holding the society together(social statics) ii. Those driving social change(social dynamics) Comte wrote so many books which contains the outline of his thought such as: i. Positive philosophy(1830 -42) ii. System of positive policy(1851 -54) iii. Religion of humanity (1958) Comte gave birth not only to a specific methodology of studying knowledge and also analyzed the evolution of human thinking and its various stages. He developed a unilinear theory of evolution. According to Comte, individual mind and human society pass through successive stages of historical evolution leading to some final stage of perfection. The principle developed by Comte in the study of human thinking presumes gradual evolution and development in human thinking and it is known as the law of three stages of thinking. Comte’s law of three stages represents that there are three intellectual stages through which the world has gone through this process but groups, societies, individual science and even minds go through three stages...
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... Mode of Submission: Coordinator Examiner: Mr.Olomi This paper proposes to show up, examine the concept of sociology and also to discuss the objective of sociology and its importance. The term Sociology as quoted by Geoffrey, et al, (1970 p.201) from the new dictionary of sociology state that, ‘sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies’. It is amazing and compelling enterprise, having as its subject matter our own behavior as social being. The scope of sociology is very wide, ranging from the analysis of passing encounters between individual in the street up to the investigation of world-wide social processes. To support dictionary, sociology is the study of societies in a scientific way. Before the emergence of sociology, there was no systematic and scientific attempt to study human society with all its complexities. Sociology has made it possible to study society in a scientific manner. This scientific knowledge about human society is needed in order to achieve progress in various fields. Father more; Sociology is the study of the social lives of humans, groups and societies. It concerns itself with the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions Sociology is interested in our behavior as social beings; thus the sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on...
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...entity; the whole planets population is concerned by environmental troubles. Each living entity on the planet may affect the environment. In order for individuals to preserve the planet, assistant in resolving environmental problems, and attain sustainability of the planet as it grows, a person should know the fundamental principles of environmental science. Environmental science may be described as the study of human connections with the environment. It is the interdisciplinary subject that blends knowledge from several disciplines such as geography, biology, chemistry, physics, geology, economics, cultural anthropology, sociology (particularly demography, the study of populations), natural resource management, engineering, agriculture, law, ethics, and politics (Berg & Hager, 2009, p1.4). Science and Technology effect the Environment Science and technology affect environmental challenges and resolutions in today’s culture. Science and technology both support humanity by assisting in the advancement of new innovations for surviving, but likewise presents damaging and harmful consequences to the environment. Science and technology aided in creating fossil fuels to power vehicles and gas. Fossil fuels are damaging to the environment, as it is used; it gives off greenhouse gases contaminating the environment. In today’s culture, new technologies between many fields have been made and are used on an everyday basis. The progressions...
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...Making Social Science Matter: Why social Inquiry fails and how it can succeed again Advanced Organisation and management Theorising 1 The “science wars” of the mid to late 1990s appears to have been an ideological contest of wills between the natural and social sciences. The natural science ‘camp’ included such heavyweights as a Nobel prize-winning physicist and a Harvard biologist and geneticist. The latter, R.C. Lewontin in the New York Review of Books harshly chided the U.S. National Opinion Research Center sexual practices study authors. “It is frightening to think that social science is in the hands of professionals who are … deaf to human nuance”. He concluded that social scientists’ propensity to impersonate natural science “can only engender the scorn of natural scientists”(p2). Given the apparent harshness of this critique, it may seem surprising to find a social scientist seeming to agree with the positioning of the natural scientists. This is precisely what Bent Flyvbjerg’s appears to do, albeit with a different premise, in the first chapter of his book ‘Making Social Science Matter: How Social Inquiry Fails and How it can Succeed Again’. Flyvbjerg articulates the case for a revision of the theoretical underpinnings of social science and the development of a new version of an old concept through a return to and reinterpretation of the Aristotelian concept of ‘phronesis’, or practical wisdom. Flyvbjerg argues for a re-routing of social science away from its...
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