...Gene patenting Gene patenting is a type of license from the government that gives the right to some companies to control the use of the gene they have patented. Nowadays, gene patenting has become a hot debate all over the world. There are those who believe that human genes should not be patented such as Michael Crichton. He wrote an article named “Patenting Life” in the New York Times against gene patenting. On the other hand, there are also some people who believe that some types of genes can be patented such as John E. Calfee. He also wrote an article named “Decoding the use of Gene Patents” in The American Magazine. The article explained his thought about why human genes can be patents. However, gene patenting is an important thing that...
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...If one was able to put their own price on a gene patent, then a lot more clinical research would be easily accessible, thus leading to less expensive testing and a lower amount of deaths. Film producer, Michael Crichton, who wrote “Patenting Life” and an economist in the Bureau Of Economics at the Federal Trade Commission, John E. Calfee, who wrote “ Decoding The Use Of Gene Patents,” discuss the use of gene patents and its negative effects on medical research. Crichton and Calfee both disagree on the handling of gene patents. Each source points out the rising medical costs, monopoly effects and impeding the advancement of future research. Gene patents are shown to gradually increase in price. This can be seen when Crichton talks about how a test for breast cancer which could be done for $1,000 has dramatically increased to $3,000, stating “ Why? Because the holder of the gene can charge whatever he wants and does”(Crichton 441). Believing that everyone should be able to test on the gene patent not solely the company who owns it. On the other hand, Calfee argues that not...
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...Gene patenting: recent debate Much of the debate around gene patenting in Australia has been prompted by the case of the BRCA genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are human genes that belong to a class of genes known as tumour suppressors. Mutation of these genes has been linked to hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. Patents for these genes are held by Myriad Genetics, an American company, which has granted Genetic Technologies exclusive rights to BRCA1 and BRCA2 testing in Australia. In 2002-3, and again in 2008, Genetic Technologies sought to enforce its rights in relation to the BRCA genes in Australia, including through demands that public hospitals and other laboratories cease to offer the tests. Genetic Technologies later withdrew these demands. However, the episode prompted the establishment of a Senate Community Affairs Inquiry into Gene Patents in 2008 (following an earlier report from the Australian Law Reform Commission in 2004), as well as legal action initiated by Cancer Voices Australia and Yvonne D’Arcy. In 2010, a private member’s bill was introduced into the Senate (the Patent Amendment (Human Genes and Biological Materials) Bill 2010) to prevent the patenting of human genes and biological materials existing in nature. A Senate Inquiry was also established to consider this bill. The Senate Inquiry into Gene Patenting reported in 2010 and made 16 recommendations, none of which specifically aimed to ban gene patenting. In 2011, the Inquiry into the Patent Amendment Bill...
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...Critical Review 1 In recent years, patents, copyrights and trademarks have become more and more prevalent. Nowadays, people are trying and in some instances succeeding in trademarking things such as human genes, scents, and even phrases such as Donald Trump’s “You’re Fired”. Kembrew Mcleod in his article titled, “Freedom of Expression: Overzealous Copyright Bozos and Other Enemies of Creativity” analyzes the effects that patents and copyrights have on our society today. Mcleod uses numerous examples and anecdotes to emphasize his main point that patents and copyrights are getting out of hand and restricting our freedom of expression. Mcleod presents a very convincing argument in this article and does a great job explaining how trademark holders are going to the extreme to protect their property. Mcleod believes that our freedom of expression is being eroded because of the expansion of the patent law in the last quarter of the century. As a result, many things are becoming privatized. In the article, Mcleod discusses an incident regarding a man named Moore, who had his spleen removed to treat his leukemia. The doctor that did the procedure patented a cell line taken from his organ without Moore’s consent. The doctor went on to develop a drug from the patent and Moore did not reap any of the benefits of the success of the drug because of the doctor’s patent. This example proves that what some people are patenting these days is getting out of hand. In the article, Mcleod...
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...the second topic covered shows that the author’s intended audience is expected to have prior knowledge of Monsanto and the issues surrounding the business. The focus is the disruption of the process of saving seeds from one season to the next, which had always been a practice until the patents were put into place. When a farmer purchases Monsanto’s Roundup Ready seeds, they have to agree not to save the seeds for the next season’s planting. “This radical departure from age-old practices has created turmoil in farm country” (pg 163). The article conveys that it goes against a farmer’s practical sensibilities to throw away perfectly good seed, and even if a particular farm does not choose to grow Monsanto seed, wind and birds carry the patented gene/seeds in from neighboring farms, opening them up to lawsuits that...
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...in a particular culture (Campbell, 2007). Although the U.S. does not have a similar doctrine in place, the courts are left to decide what is ethical vs. unethical in terms of patentability. The Supreme Court’s gene patent decision makes patenting naturally occurring genes no longer patentable. Genes that are edited and not found in nature are patentable (National Geographic, 2013). Thus introducing the controversy of what genetic modifications and life forms are acceptable, thus leading to an argument to prevent genetic modifications to maintain an ethical...
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...don’t think about this kind of thing, but we should. According to the FDA, about 70 percent of all foods we eat today contain some form of genetically modified foods. In this essay, I will tell you how genetically modified foods are created, what the catalyst was to their development, and finish up with the risks. You may be wondering, what are genetically modified foods? Farmers have been altering the genes of plants for many years using traditional sapling grafting techniques. Through the selection process, the desire for specific traits has resulted in a variety of different organisms ranging from the tangelo to the sweet corn. This process is done naturally and over a long period of time. Today, scientist incorporate genes from one species into a completely unrelated species, modifying the genetic material that does not occur naturally, and creating what is called Genetically Modified Organisms, or GMOs. This process produces similar results the farmers achieved but at a faster rate and with different and amazing side effects like plants resistant to the pesticide “Roundup” or even plants that create their own insecticides. GMOs were originally developed with the goal to end world hunger until 1985 when a law was created giving developers the right to patent life. Big companies like Monsanto have taken full advantage of this law and have taken the agricultural business to a whole new money making level. Monsanto sells its patented genetically engineered Roundup Ready seeds...
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...dissemination of scientific and technical information. *less for certain kinds of patents (e.g. new drugs) Bio-tech Terminology DNA is a double-stranded helix composed of complementary nucleic acid base-pairs: adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). DNA consists of sequences of nucleic acids, such as ACTTAGGAC. Proteins are composed of amino acids, which can fold to make complex structures (various tissues which form organs ,etc).… It takes three nucleic acid bases (or codon) to code for a single amino acid. A “gene” can be defined as the basic unit of heredity; it carries the information required to make one or more proteins. In human beings, genes include the base-pairs required to make a protein but not the regulatory sequences. Only a small percentage of human DNA, perhaps less than 5%, consists of genes. The human genome includes about 35,000 genes, which code for about 100,000 proteins. The rest of the genome consists of regulatory sequences as well as other DNA base-pairs that have no apparent function, which are also known as “junk DNA.” The USPTO regards DNA sequences as chemicals similar to other isolated and purified compounds, such as digitalis (a heart medication found in the foxglove plant), salicylic acid (an anti-inflammatory medication...
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...Gene technology carries with it social and ethical implications—many of which engender personal views and discussion. Select one (1) of the following biotechnology topics to write about: * Genetically modified animals 1. Biological basis. Describe the technology. Discuss what it accomplishes. Elaborate on the scientific principles that make this technology possible. Your goal in this section of the paper is to show the instructor that you understand the underlying science behind the technology. Describe how exactly the technology works. Discuss the biological principles that underlie this technology. Genetic engineering is the use of tools of modern biotechnology and molecular biology to introduce new characteristics or traits into organisms. It is a laboratory process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and forced into the genes of an unrelated plant or animal to introduce new genetic material, or delete or alter existing genetic material. Genetic engineering comes from foreign genes of bacteria, viruses, insects, animals or even humans which enables people to introduce a much wider range of new characteristics into an organism than is possible by conventional breeding. Animals that have had genes artificially added or removed from their DNA are described as genetically modified animals. Genetic modification of an animal involves altering its genetic material by adding, changing or removing certain DNA orders in a way that does not occur...
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...have been introduced to genetic engineering techniques to enhance desired traits such as improved nutritional content and much more. Over 40 plant varieties have federal requirements for commercialization as GMOs. It all started in 1946, when scientists discovered DNA transfer between organisms. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983 and now 165 million acres annually are grown. However, along with rapid adoption of technology have come myths propagated by proponents and opponents. Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. All GM foods currently available on the international market have passed risk assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. The general population has showed no effects on human health because of the consumption of such foods. Continuous use of risk assessments based on the Codex principles and, where appropriate, including post market monitoring, should form the basis for evaluating the safety of GM foods. (Winter & Gallegos, 2006) The GM foods controversy is a dispute over the relative advantages and disadvantages of food derived from GMOs, GM crops used and other uses of GMOs in food production. The world population has topped 6 billion people and is predicted to double in the next 50 years thus ensuring an adequate food supply for this booming population is going to be a major challenge in the years to come. GM foods promise to meet this need in a number of ways. Their crops are pest...
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...GMOS GMOs, or genetically modified organisms, have been around for about 40 years now. A genetically modified organism is a plant or animal whose genes or “DNA” have been modified in such a way that the product is not naturally found in nature or through natural cross-breeding. Traditionally, the genes with the desired characteristic are introduced to the genes of the plant/animal that is being genetically modified. This results in a plant that is very similar to the original, but contains varying amounts of genetic change. Many GMOs have been modified in such a way that they can withstand a certain kind of herbicide, or survive certain kinds of harsh climate conditions; while others have been modified so that they can produce a certain kind of pesticide to ward off would-be crop killing insects. Through these modifications genetically modified organisms are touted as lasting longer, and producing more abundant crop yields. Also, organisms that have undergone modification require fewer pesticides, water, and reduce production costs for crops used for food, such as soybeans, corn, and sugar beets (www.factsaboutgmos.org). According to the USDA, the most common kinds of GMOs are corn, cotton, and soybeans, but a variety of foods can be found in your local supermarket that have been genetically modified, and according to the Non-GMO Project, up to 80% of processed foods in the United States contain food items that are genetically modified. The issue as to whether or not...
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...Software Copyright and Patents Introduction The escalating speed of the advancement in the software industry has put many parties in a competitive race to come up with new softwares for commercial purposes. This digital arms race contributed to a rapid increase in software patents from a mere 45 average patents a week in year 1985 to an average 1200 patents a week in year 2012 (Patent Metrics, 2013). Intrigued by such large numbers of software patents, multiple studies have been carried out by scholars to investigate the impact of software patents to the software industry. The studies sparked an ongoing debate on whether software copyrights and patents are beneficial or detrimental for the software industry. This paper touches lightly on the methodology of software copyrights and patents under the current standards of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It then explores the benefits of copyrights and patents in the software industry and lay out the drawbacks of software patenting. Finally, this paper provides a possible four-point solution to the problems concerning software patents. Methodology of Software Copyrights and Patents According to WIPO, copyright is defined as something that “provides exclusive legal rights to a creator to publish, print, perform or materialise an original work and authorize others to do the same” (2002). In the context of software copyright, a software is subject to copyright as soon as it is documented in a verifiable manner...
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...Keywords: GMOs, FDA, agriculture, Monsanto, patents, corruption, environment. GMOs: An Introduction We live in an area where the acquisition of knowledge is only a few keystrokes away for any given subject. The pace at which new technologies are developed and become obsolete is unprecedented. Each new invention brings the hope and promise of a better tomorrow, an improved tomorrow. One of these revolutionary technologies are genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Companies that produce GMOs offer the technology as the answer to at least two of our most pressing issues, sustainable agriculture and world hunger. Both issues speak to one of humanity’s most basic biological needs, food. In effect, anything that affects this need should be treated with importance and urgency, because of the essential nature of food for human existence. Food plays a major role in our day to day survival and it was at the heart of the development of civilization. From an evolutionary perspective, agriculture was the pivotal mile stone in the hunter and gatherer phase of humanity, which enabled the first families to leave their nomadic ways and settle in one place, making possible the development of human civilization. Whatever...
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...In the article “The link between patenting life forms, genetic engineering and food security” (Review of African Political Economy, 1998) the author, Wangari Mathai, concludes that transnational corporations should be restrained to patent seeds using genetic engineering biotechnology. She supports her argument with the following claims. Firstly she reasons that corporations gain private monopoly rights on the raw biological materials by confiscating human resources without prior consent. Subsequently, the development of alternatives to the patented material is deliberately blocked. Secondly, Mathai highlights patenting a reason for food insecurity among farmers due to un-reusability of patented seeds. The seeds developed by genetically engineered technology does not germinate after harvesting, thereby, forcing the poverty ridden farmers to purchase seeds every season from the corporation. I agree with Mathai to some extent; however I feel that some of her reasoning requires further elaboration to make her argument more convincing. In my opinion, the author has failed to highlight on the fact that there might be a possible loss of cultural value and traditional community knowledge with limited or no compensation. Patent monopolies on plant varieties threaten developing countries in three ways. First, by increasing prices so far that most citizens have zero access to these new developments; second, by blocking local production whenever the patent owner so chooses and lastly...
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...uses what and for which purpose? How are these services generated for either the Core or the Periphery? Based on the previous information it is possible to state that one of the main problems that causes the increasing inequity is the lack of acces for the human assets to services from organisational assets. Which means that the farmers who produce the capital stock have very little influence on how and what they produce. The patent regime has a big share in the current situation (Laursen, 2012). According to Soleri (1999) intellectual property rights should protect the folk variety seeds and food products. The farmers would have the rights to grow and control these. The property rights include information about the DNA and knowledge about the production as well as knowledge about the traditional use. DeGeer (2003) states that the problem is that the essential quality of nature that should prevent it from being patented is being denied by the property right’s regime. Tribal people in India, of which 19 percent of the population consists (NHB, 2003), view the natural world as something sacred and as common property.The regime on the other hand sees it as commodities to be bought and sold on the market. It has money making as its goal and sees all life as a possibility for commercialised exploitation to reach this goal. herhaling van DeGeer-> ook in stuk over...
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