Simple Stresses
Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the resisting area or σ = Force / Area. It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that are subjected to external forces and/or induced forces. Stress is the lead to accurately describe and predict the elastic deformation of a body. Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress. Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile stress and compressive stress develops when the material is being compressed by two opposing forces. Shear stress is developed if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area. Example is the bolt that holds the tension rod in its anchor. Another condition of shearing is when we twist a bar along its longitudinal axis. This type of shearing is called torsion and covered in Chapter 3. Another type of simple stress is the bearing stress, it is the contact pressure between two bodies. Suspension bridges are good example of structures that carry these stresses. The weight of the vehicle is carried by the bridge deck and passes the force to the stringers (vertical cables), which in turn, supported by the main suspension cables. The suspension cables then transferred the force into bridge towers.

Normal Stress Stress
Stress is the expression of force applied to a unit area of surface. It is measured in psi (English unit) or in MPa (SI unit). Another unit of stress which is not commonly used is the dynes (cgs unit). Stress is the ratio of force over area. stress = force / area

Simple Stresses
There are three types of simple stress namely; normal stress, shearing stress, and bearing stress.

Normal Stress
The resisting area is perpendicular to the applied force, thus normal. There are two types of normal stresses; tensile stress and compressive stress. Tensile stress applied to bar tends the bar to elongate while compressive stress tend to shorten the bar.

where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The maximum stress in tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the load.

SOLVED PROBLEMS IN NORMAL STRESS Problem 104 A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2.

Solution 104

Problem 105 A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as shown in Fig. P-105. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel.
Figure P-105

Solution 105

Problem 106 The homogeneous bar shown in Fig. P-106 is supported by a smooth pin at C and a cable that runs from A to B around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the cable if its diameter is 0.6 inch and the bar weighs 6000 lb.

Solution 106

Problem 107 A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached between steel and bronze sections, as shown in Fig. P-107. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. If P = 3000 lb and the cross sectional area of the rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in each section.

Solution 107

Problem 108 An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze rod as shown in Fig. P-108. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the maximum value of P that will not exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in aluminum of 90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa.
Figure P-108

Solution 108

Problem 109 Determine the largest weight W that can be supported by two wires shown in Fig. P109. The stress in either wire is not to exceed 30 ksi. The cross-sectional areas of wires AB and AC are 0.4 in2 and 0.5 in2, respectively.

Solution 109

Problem 110 A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies between an 8-inches diameter wooden post and a concrete footing as shown in Fig. P-110. Determine the maximum value of the load P if the stress in wood is limited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to 650 psi.

Solution 110

Problem 111 For the truss shown in Fig. P-111, calculate the stresses in members CE, DE, and DF. The crosssectional area of each member is 1.8 in2. Indicate tension (T) or compression (C).

Solution 111

Problem 112 Determine the crosssectional areas of members AG, BC, and CE for the truss shown in Fig. P-112 above. The stresses are not to exceed 20 ksi in tension and 14 ksi in compression. A reduced stress in compression is specified to reduce the danger of buckling.

Solution 112

Problem 113 Find the stresses in members BC, BD, and CF for the truss shown in Fig. P-113. Indicate the tension or compression. The cross sectional area of each member is 1600 mm2.

Solution 113

Problem 114 The homogeneous bar ABCD shown in Fig. P-114 is supported by a cable that runs from A to B around the smooth peg at E, a vertical cable at C, and a smooth inclined surface at D. Determine the mass of the heaviest bar that can be supported if the stress in each cable is limited to 100 MPa. The area of the cable AB is 250 mm2 and that of the cable at C is 300 mm2.

Solution 114

Shearing Stress
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.

where V is the resultant shearing force which passes which passes through the centroid of the area A being sheared.

SOLVED PROBLEMS IN SHEARING STRESS Problem 115 What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2. Solution 115

Problem 116 As in Fig. 1-11c, a hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing strength of 40 ksi. The compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50 ksi. (a) Compute the maximum thickness of plate in which a hole 2.5 inches in diameter can be punched. (b) If the plate is 0.25 inch thick, determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched. Solution 116

Problem 117 Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b if P = 400 kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa. Solution 117

Problem 118 A 200-mm-diameter pulley is prevented from rotating relative to 60-mm-diameter shaft by a 70-mm-long key, as shown in Fig. P-118. If a torque T = 2.2 kN·m is applied to the shaft, determine the width b if the allowable shearing stress in the key is 60 MPa.

Solution 118

Problem 119 Compute the shearing stress in the pin at B for the member supported as shown in Fig. P-119. The pin diameter is 20 mm.

Solution 119

Problem 120 The members of the structure in Fig. P-120 weigh 200 lb/ft. Determine the smallest diameter pin that can be used at A if the shearing stress is limited to 5000 psi. Assume single shear.

Solution 120

Problem 121 Referring to Fig. P-121, compute the maximum force P that can be applied by the machine operator, if the shearing stress in the pin at B and the axial stress in the control rod at C are limited to 4000 psi and 5000 psi, respectively. The diameters are 0.25 inch for the pin, and 0.5 inch for the control rod. Assume single shear for the pin at B.

Solution 121

Problem 122 Two blocks of wood, width w and thickness t, are glued together along the joint inclined at the angle θ as shown in Fig. P-122. Using the free-body diagram concept in Fig. 1-4a, show that the shearing stress on the glued joint is τ = P sin 2θ/2A, where A is the crosssectional area.

Solution 122

Problem 123 A rectangular piece of wood, 50 mm by 100 mm in cross section, is used as a compression block shown in Fig. P-123. Determine the axial force P that can be safely applied to the block if the compressive stress in wood is limited to 20 MN/m2 and the shearing stress parallel to the grain is limited to 5 MN/m2. The grain makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal, as shown. (Hint: Use the results in Problem 122.)

Solution 123

Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from compressive stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.

SOLVED PROBLEMS IN BEARING STRESS Problem 125 In Fig. 1-12, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the largest average tensile stress in the plates.

Solution 125

Problem 126 The lap joint shown in Fig. P-126 is fastened by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets. Calculate the maximum safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is limited to 14 ksi and the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly distributed among the four rivets.

Solution 126

Problem 127 In the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b, find the minimum bolt diameter and the minimum thickness of each yoke that will support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

Solution 127

Problem 128 A W18 × 86 beam is riveted to a W24 × 117 girder by a connection similar to that in Fig. 1-13. The diameter of the rivets is 7/8 in., and the angles are each 4 × 31/2 × 3/8 in. For each rivet, assume that the allowable stresses are τ = 15 ksi and σb = 32 ksi. Find the allowable load on the connection.

Solution 128 Note: Textbook is Strength of Materials 4th edition by Pytel and Singer

Problem 129 A 7/8-in.-diameter bolt, having a diameter at the root of the threads of 0.731 in., is used to fasten two timbers together as shown in Fig. P-129. The nut is tightened to cause a tensile stress of 18 ksi in the bolt. Compute the shearing stress in the head of the bolt and in the threads. Also, determine the outside diameter of the washers if their inside diameter is 9/8 in. and the bearing stress is limited to 800 psi.

Solution 129

Problem 130 Figure P-130 shows a roof truss and the detail of the riveted connection at joint B. Using allowable stresses of τ = 70 MPa and σb= 140 MPa, how many 19-mm diameter rivets are required to fasten member BC to the gusset plate? Member BE? What is the largest average tensile or compressive stress in BC and BE?

Solution 130

Problem 131 Repeat Problem 130 if the rivet diameter is 22 mm and all other data remain unchanged. Solution 131

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections. TANGENTIAL STRESS (Circumferential Stress) Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of the tank:

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be expressed as:

LONGITUDINAL STRESS, σL Consider the free body diagram in the transverse section of the tank:

The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must equal to the total longitudinal stress on the wall PT = σL Awall. Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall is close to πDt

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be expressed as:

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress. σt = 2 σL

SPHERICAL SHELL If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t contains gas under a pressure of p, the stress at the wall can be expressed as:

SOLVED PROBLEMS IN THIN WALLED PREASSURE VESSELS Problem 133 A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 20 mm, is subjected to an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/m2. (a) Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b) To what value may the internal pressure be increased if the stress in the steel is limited to 120 MN/m2? (c) If the internal pressure were increased until the vessel burst, sketch the type of fracture that would occur. Solution 133

Problem 134 The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter spherical tank is 5/16 in. Calculate the allowable internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi. Solution 134

Problem 135 Calculate the minimum wall thickness for a cylindrical vessel that is to carry a gas at a pressure of 1400 psi. The diameter of the vessel is 2 ft, and the stress is limited to 12 ksi. Solution 135

Problem 136 A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has a thickness of 20 mm. The diameter of the pressure vessel is 450 mm and its length is 2.0 m. Determine the maximum internal pressure that can be applied if the longitudinal stress is limited to 140 MPa, and the circumferential stress is limited to 60 MPa. Solution 136

Problem 137 A water tank, 22 ft in diameter, is made from steel plates that are ½ in. thick. Find the maximum height to which the tank may be filled if the circumferential stress is limited to 6000 psi. The specific weight of water is 62.4 lb/ft3. Solution 137

Problem 138 The strength of longitudinal joint in Fig. 1-17 is 33 kips/ft, whereas for the girth is 16 kips/ft. Calculate the maximum diameter of the cylinder tank if the internal pressure is 150 psi.

Solution 138

Problem 139 Find the limiting peripheral velocity of a rotating steel ring if the allowable stress is 20 ksi and steel weighs 490 lb/ft3. At what revolutions per minute (rpm) will the stress reach 30 ksi if the mean radius is 10 in.? Solution 139

Problem 140 At what angular velocity will the stress of the rotating steel ring equal 150 MPa if its mean radius is 220 mm? The density of steel 7.85 Mg/m3. Solution 140

Problem 141 The tank shown in Fig. P-141 is fabricated from 1/8-in steel plate. Calculate the maximum longitudinal and circumferential stress caused by an internal pressure of 125 psi.

Solution 141

Problem 142 A pipe carrying steam at 3.5 MPa has an outside diameter of 450 mm and a wall thickness of 10 mm. A gasket is inserted between the flange at one end of the pipe and a flat plate used to cap the end. How many 40-mm-diameter bolts must be used to hold the cap on if the allowable stress in the bolts is 80 MPa, of which 55 MPa is the initial stress? What circumferential stress is developed in the pipe? Why is it necessary to tighten the bolt initially, and what will happen if the steam pressure should cause the stress in the bolts to be twice the value of the initial stress? Solution 142

Strain
Simple Strain
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to the original length.

where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is dimensionless.

Stress-Strain Diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression testing machine. As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gage length is measured at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium carbon structural steel. Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between these two classes.

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (HOOKE'S LAW)
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

ELASTIC LIMIT
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC RANGES
The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.

YIELD POINT
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding without any increase in load.

ULTIMATE STRENGTH
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.

RAPTURE STRENGTH
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking strength.

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to P, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.

MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to R, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.

WORKING STRESS, ALLOWABLE STRESS, AND FACTOR OF SAFETY
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

AXIAL DEFORMATION
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to strain and is given by σ = Eε

since σ = P / A and εe = δ / L, then P / A = E δ / L. Solving for δ,

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the stress must not exceed the proportional limit. If however, the crosssectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by considering a differential length and applying integration.

If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by considering a differential length and applying integration.

where A = ty and y and t, if variable, must be expressed in terms of x. For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation due to its own weight is

where ρ is in kg/m3, L is the length of the rod in mm, M is the total mass of the rod in kg, A is the cross-sectional area of the rod in mm2, and g = 9.81 m/s2.

STIFFNESS, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement. It has the unit of N/mm. k=P/δ

SOLVED PROBLEMS IN AXIAL DEFORMATION Problem 206 A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 × 103 MN/m2, find the total elongation of the rod. Solution 206

Problem 207 A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, supports a load of 500 lb. Neglecting the weight of the wire, determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20 ksi and the total elongation is not to exceed 0.20 in. Assume E = 29 × 106 psi.

Solution 207

Problem 208 A steel tire, 10 mm thick, 80 mm wide, and 1500.0 mm inside diameter, is heated and shrunk onto a steel wheel 1500.5 mm in diameter. If the coefficient of static friction is 0.30, what torque is required to twist the tire relative to the wheel? Neglect the deformation of the wheel. Use E = 200 GPa. Solution 208

Problem 209 An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads applied at the positions shown in Fig. P-209. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E = 10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

Solution 209

Problem 210 Solve Prob. 209 if the points of application of the 6000-lb and the 4000-lb forces are interchanged. Solution 210

Problem 211 A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in Fig. P211. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that will not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0 mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa, and Ebr = 83 GPa.

Solution 211

Problem 212 The rigid bar ABC shown in Fig. P-212 is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.

Solution 212

Problem 213 The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in Fig. P-213, is horizontal before the load P is applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.

Solution 213

Problem 214 The rigid bars AB and CD shown in Fig. P-214 are supported by pins at A and C and the two rods. Determine the maximum force P that can be applied as shown if its vertical movement is limited to 5 mm. Neglect the weights of all members.

Solution 214

Problem 215 A uniform concrete slab of total weight W is to be attached, as shown in Fig. P-215, to two rods whose lower ends are on the same level. Determine the ratio of the areas of the rods so that the slab will remain level.

Solution 215

Problem 216 As shown in Fig. P-216, two aluminum rods AB and BC, hinged to rigid supports, are pinned together at B to carry a vertical load P = 6000 lb. If each rod has a crosssectional area of 0.60 in2 and E = 10 × 106 psi, compute the elongation of each rod and the horizontal and vertical displacements of point B. Assume α = 30° and θ = 30°.

Solution 216

Problem 217 Solve Prob. 216 if rod AB is of steel, with E = 29 × 106 psi. Assume α = 45° and θ = 30°; all other data remain unchanged. Solution 217

Problem 218 A uniform slender rod of length L and cross sectional area A is rotating in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis through one end. If the unit mass of the rod is ρ, and it is rotating at a constant angular velocity of ω rad/sec, show that the total elongation of the rod is ρω2L3/3E. Solution 218

Problem 219 A round bar of length L, which tapers uniformly from a diameter D at one end to a smaller diameter d at the other, is suspended vertically from the large end. If w is the weight per unit volume, find the elongation of the rod caused by its own weight. Use this result to determine the elongation of a cone suspended from its base. Solution 219

SOLVED PROBLEMS IN STRAIN AND AXIAL DEFORMATION Problem 203 The following data were recorded during the tensile test of a 14-mm-diameter mild steel rod. The gage length was 50 mm.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties: (a) proportional limits; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield point; (d) ultimate strength; and (e) rupture strength.

Solution 203

Problem 204 The following data were obtained during a tension test of an aluminum alloy. The initial diameter of the test specimen was 0.505 in. and the gage length was 2.0 in.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties: (a) proportional limit; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield point; (d) yield strength at 0.2% offset; (e) ultimate strength; and (f) rupture strength. Solution 204

Problem 205 A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and unit mass ρ is suspended vertically from one end. Show that its total elongation is δ = ρgL2 / 2E. If the total mass of the bar is M, show also that δ = MgL/2AE. Solution 205

Shearing Deformation
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain and is expressed as

The ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called the modulus of elasticity in shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.

The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is

where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.

Poisson's Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the direction of the applied load, but there is also a decrease in a lateral dimension perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation (or strain) is called the Poisson's ratio and is denoted by ν. For most steel, it lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.

where εx is strain in the x-direction and εy and εz are the strains in the perpendicular direction. The negative sign indicates a decrease in the transverse dimension when εx is positive.

BIAXIAL DEFORMATION
If an element is subjected simultaneously by ensile stresses, σx and σy, in the x and y directions, the strain in the x-direction is σx / E and the strain in the y direction is σy / E. Simultaneously, the stress in the y direction will produce a lateral contraction on the xx direction of the amount -ν εy or -ν σy/E. The resulting strain in the x direction will be

TRIAXIAL DEFORMATION
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three mutually perpendicular normal stresses σx, σy, and σz, which are accompanied by strains εx, εy, and εz, respectively,

Tensile stresses and elongation are taken as positive. Compressive stresses and contraction are taken as negative.

Relationship Between E, G, and ν
The relationship between modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G and Poisson's ratio ν is:

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Volume Expansion, K
The bulk modulus of elasticity K is a measure of a resistance of a material to change in volume without change in shape or form. It is given as

where V is the volume and ΔV is change in volume. The ratio ΔV / V is called volumetric strain and can be expressed as

Solved Problems in Shearing Deformation

Problem 222 A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show that its change in diameter is 4Pν / πEd. Solution 222

Problem 223 A rectangular steel block is 3 inches long in the x direction, 2 inches long in the y direction, and 4 inches long in the z direction. The block is subjected to a triaxial loading of three uniformly distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction. If ν = 0.30 and E = 29 × 106 psi, determine the single uniformly distributed load in the x direction that would produce the same deformation in the y direction as the original loading. Solution 223

Problem 224 For the block loaded triaxially as described in Prob. 223, find the uniformly distributed load that must be added in the x direction to produce no deformation in the z direction. Solution 224

Problem 225 A welded steel cylindrical drum made of a 10-mm plate has an internal diameter of 1.20 m. Compute the change in diameter that would be caused by an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa. Assume that Poisson's ratio is 0.30 and E = 200 GPa.

Solution 225

Problem 226 A 2-in.-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 0.05 inch just fits in a rigid hole. Find the tangential stress if an axial compressive load of 3140 lb is applied. Assume ν = 0.30 and neglect the possibility of buckling. Solution 226

Problem 227 A 150-mm-long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has a wall thickness of 3 mm. It fits without clearance in an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is then subjected to an internal pressure of 4.00 MPa. Assuming ν = 1/3 and E = 83 GPa, determine the tangential stress in the tube. Solution 227

Problem 228 A 6-in.-long bronze tube, with closed ends, is 3 in. in diameter with a wall thickness of 0.10 in. With no internal pressure, the tube just fits between two rigid end walls. Calculate the longitudinal and tangential stresses for an internal pressure of 6000 psi. Assume ν = 1/3 and E = 12 × 106 psi. Solution 228

Statically Indeterminate Members
When the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross section exceed the number of independent equations of equilibrium, the structure is called statically indeterminate. These cases require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic deformations in the members.

Solved Problems in Statically Indeterminate Members

Problem 233 A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by a shell of a cast iron 5 mm thick. Compute the load that will compress the combined bar a total of 0.8 mm in the length of 2 m. For steel, E = 200 GPa, and for cast iron, E = 100 GPa. Solution 233

Problem 234 A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial compressive load of 300 kN. Determine the required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable stresses are 6 MPa and 120 MPa for the concrete and steel, respectively. Use Eco = 14 GPa and Est = 200 GPa. Solution 234

Problem 235 A timber column, 8 in. × 8 in. in cross section, is reinforced on each side by a steel plate 8 in. wide and t in. thick. Determine the thickness t so that the column will support an axial load of 300 kips without exceeding a maximum timber stress of 1200 psi or a maximum steel stress of 20 ksi. The moduli of elasticity are 1.5 × 106 psi for timber, and 29 × 106 psi for steel.

Solution 235

Problem 236 A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically spaced rods as shown in fig P-236. Each copper rod has an area of 900 mm2; E = 120 GPa; and the allowable stress is 70 MPa. The steel rod has an area of 1200 mm2; E = 200 GPa; and the allowable stress is 140 MPa. Determine the largest mass M which can be supported.
Figure P-236 and P-237

Solution 236

Problem 237 In Prob. 236, how should the lengths of the two identical copper rods be changed so that each material will be stressed to its allowable limit? Solution 237

Problem 238 The lower ends of the three bars in Fig. P-238 are at the same level before the uniform rigid block weighing 40 kips is attached. Each steel bar has a length of 3 ft, and area of 1.0 in.2, and E = 29 × 106 psi. For the bronze bar, the area is 1.5 in.2 and E = 12 × 106 psi. Determine (a) the length of the bronze bar so that the load on each steel bar is twice the load on the bronze bar, and (b) the length of the bronze that will make the steel stress twice the bronze stress.

Solution 238

Problem 239 The rigid platform in Fig. P-239 has negligible mass and rests on two steel bars, each 250.00 mm long. The center bar is aluminum and 249.90 mm long. Compute the stress in the aluminum bar after the center load P = 400 kN has been applied. For each steel bar, the area is 1200 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. For the aluminum bar, the area is 2400 mm2 and E = 70 GPa.

Solution 239

Problem 240 Three steel eye-bars, each 4 in. by 1 in. in section, are to be assembled by driving rigid 7/8-in.-diameter drift pins through holes drilled in the ends of the bars. The center-line spacing between the holes is 30 ft in the two outer bars, but 0.045 in. shorter in the middle bar. Find the shearing stress developed in the drip pins. Neglect local deformation at the holes.

Solution 240

Problem 241 As shown in Fig. P-241, three steel wires, each 0.05 in.2 in area, are used to lift a load W = 1500 lb. Their unstressed lengths are 74.98 ft, 74.99 ft, and 75.00 ft. (a) What stress exists in the longest wire? (b) Determine the stress in the shortest wire if W = 500 lb.

Solution 241

Problem 242 The assembly in Fig. P-242 consists of a light rigid bar AB, pinned at O, that is attached to the steel and aluminum rods. In the position shown, bar AB is horizontal and there is a gap, Δ = 5 mm, between the lower end of the steel rod and its pin support at C. Compute the stress in the aluminum rod when the lower end of the steel rod is attached to its support.

Solution 242

Problem 243 A homogeneous rod of constant cross section is attached to unyielding supports. It carries an axial load P applied as shown in Fig. P-243. Prove that the reactions are given by R1 = Pb/L and R2 = Pa/L.

Solution 243

Problem 244 A homogeneous bar with a cross sectional area of 500 mm2 is attached to rigid supports. It carries the axial loads P1 = 25 kN and P2 = 50 kN, applied as shown in Fig. P-244. Determine the stress in segment BC. (Hint: Use the results of Prob. 243, and compute the reactions caused by P1 and P2 acting separately. Then use the principle of superposition to compute the reactions when both loads are applied.)

Solution 244

Problem 245 The composite bar in Fig. P-245 is firmly attached to unyielding supports. Compute the stress in each material caused by the application of the axial load P = 50 kips.

Solution 245

Problem 246 Referring to the composite bar in Prob. 245, what maximum axial load P can be applied if the allowable stresses are 10 ksi for aluminum and 18 ksi for steel. Solution 246

Problem 247 The composite bar in Fig. P-247 is stress-free before the axial loads P1 and P2 are applied. Assuming that the walls are rigid, calculate the stress in each material if P1 = 150 kN and P2 = 90 kN.

Solution 247

Problem 248 Solve Prob. 247 if the right wall yields 0.80 mm.

Solution 248

Problem 249 There is a radial clearance of 0.05 mm when a steel tube is placed over an aluminum tube. The inside diameter of the aluminum tube is 120 mm, and the wall thickness of each tube is 2.5 mm. Compute the contact pressure and tangential stress in each tube when the aluminum tube is subjected to an internal pressure of 5.0 MPa.

Solution 249

Problem 250 In the assembly of the bronze tube and steel bolt shown in Fig. P-250, the pitch of the bolt thread is p = 1/32 in.; the cross-sectional area of the bronze tube is 1.5 in.2 and of steel bolt is ¾ in.2 The nut is turned until there is a compressive stress of 4000 psi in the bronze tube. Find the stresses if the nut is given one additional turn. How many turns of the nut will reduce these stresses to zero? Use Ebr = 12 × 106 psi and Est = 29 × 106 psi.

Solution 250

Problem 251 The two vertical rods attached to the light rigid bar in Fig. P-251 are identical except for length. Before the load W was attached, the bar was horizontal and the rods were stress-free. Determine the load in each rod if W = 6600 lb.

Solution 251

Problem 252 The light rigid bar ABCD shown in Fig. P-252 is pinned at B and connected to two vertical rods. Assuming that the bar was initially horizontal and the rods stress-free, determine the stress in each rod after the load after the load P = 20 kips is applied.

Solution 252

Problem 253 As shown in Fig. P-253, a rigid beam with negligible weight is pinned at one end and attached to two vertical rods. The beam was initially horizontal before the load W = 50 kips was applied. Find the vertical movement of W.

Solution 253

Problem 254 As shown in Fig. P-254, a rigid bar with negligible mass is pinned at O and attached to two vertical rods. Assuming that the rods were initially tress-free, what maximum load P can be applied without exceeding stresses of 150 MPa in the steel rod and 70 MPa in the bronze rod.

Solution 254

Problem 255 Shown in Fig. P-255 is a section through a balcony. The total uniform load of 600 kN is supported by three rods of the same area and material. Compute the load in each rod. Assume the floor to be rigid, but note that it does not necessarily remain horizontal.

Solution 255

Problem 256 Three rods, each of area 250 mm2, jointly support a 7.5 kN load, as shown in Fig. P256. Assuming that there was no slack or stress in the rods before the load was applied, find the stress in each rod. Use Est = 200 GPa and Ebr = 83 GPa.

Solution 256

Problem 257 Three bars AB, AC, and AD are pinned together as shown in Fig. P-257. Initially, the assembly is stressfree. Horizontal movement of the joint at A is prevented by a short horizontal strut AE. Calculate the stress in each bar and the force in the strut AE when the assembly is used to support the load W = 10 kips. For each steel bar, A = 0.3 in.2 and E = 29 × 106 psi. For the aluminum bar, A = 0.6 in.2 and E = 10 × 106 psi.

Solution 257

Thermal Stress
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount δT, is given by

where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meter, and Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures, respectively in °C. For steel, α = 11.25 × 10–6 / °C. If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in the structure. In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress. For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress is computed as:

deformation due to temperature changes;

deformation due to equivalent axial stress;

where σ is the thermal stress in MPa and E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa. If the wall yields a distance of x as shown, the following calculations will be made:

where σ represents the thermal stress. Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in compression, and if the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.

Solved Problems in Thermal Stress

Problem 261 A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and E = 29 × 106 psi. Solution 261

Problem 262 A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load of 5000 N at 20°C. If the allowable stress is not to exceed 130 MPa at -20°C, what is the minimum diameter of the rod? Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa. Solution 262

Problem 263 Steel railroad reels 10 m long are laid with a clearance of 3 mm at a temperature of 15°C. At what temperature will the rails just touch? What stress would be induced in the rails at that temperature if there were no initial clearance? Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa. Solution 263

Problem 264 A steel rod 3 feet long with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in.2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile force is 1200 lb at 40°F. Using E = 29 × 106 psi and α = 6.5 × 10-6 in./(in.·°F), calculate (a) the temperature at which the stress in the bar will be 10 ksi; and (b) the temperature at which the stress will be zero.

Solution 264

Problem 265 A bronze bar 3 m long with a cross sectional area of 320 mm2 is placed between two rigid walls as shown in Fig. P-265. At a temperature of -20°C, the gap Δ = 25 mm. Find the temperature at which the compressive stress in the bar will be 35 MPa. Use α = 18.0 × 10-6 m/(m·°C) and E = 80 GPa.

Solution 265

Problem 266 Calculate the increase in stress for each segment of the compound bar shown in Fig. P266 if the temperature increases by 100°F. Assume that the supports are unyielding and that the bar is suitably braced against buckling.

Solution 266

Problem 267 At a temperature of 80°C, a steel tire 12 mm thick and 90 mm wide that is to be shrunk onto a locomotive driving wheel 2 m in diameter just fits over the wheel, which is at a temperature of 25°C. Determine the contact pressure between the tire and wheel after the assembly cools to 25°C. Neglect the deformation of the wheel caused by the pressure of the tire. Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa. Solution 267

Problem 268 The rigid bar ABC in Fig. P-268 is pinned at B and attached to the two vertical rods. Initially, the bar is horizontal and the vertical rods are stress-free. Determine the stress in the aluminum rod if the temperature of the steel rod is decreased by 40°C. Neglect the weight of bar ABC.

Solution 268

Problem 269 As shown in Fig. P-269, there is a gap between the aluminum bar and the rigid slab that is supported by two copper bars. At 10°C, Δ = 0.18 mm. Neglecting the mass of the slab, calculate the stress in each rod when the temperature in the assembly is increased to 95°C. For each copper bar, A= 500 mm2, E = 120 GPa, and α = 16.8 µm/(m·°C). For the aluminum bar, A = 400 mm2, E = 70 GPa, and α = 23.1 µm/(m·°C).

Solution 269

Problem 270 A bronze sleeve is slipped over a steel bolt and held in place by a nut that is turned to produce an initial stress of 2000 psi in the bronze. For the steel bolt, A = 0.75 in2, E = 29 × 106 psi, and α = 6.5 × 10–6 in/(in·°F). For the bronze sleeve, A = 1.5 in2, E = 12 × 106 psi and α = 10.5 × 10–6 in/(in·°F). After a temperature rise of 100°F, find the final stress in each material. Solution 270

Problem 271 A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in Fig. P-271. If W = 80 kN, compute the temperature change that will cause the stress in the steel rod to be 55 MPa. Assume the coefficients of linear expansion are 11.7 µm/(m·°C) for steel and 18.9 µm / (m·°C) for bronze.

Solution 271

Problem 272 For the assembly in Fig. 271, find the stress in each rod if the temperature rises 30°C after a load W = 120 kN is applied. Solution 272

Problem 273 The composite bar shown in Fig. P-273 is firmly attached to unyielding supports. An axial force P = 50 kips is applied at 60°F. Compute the stress in each material at 120°F. Assume α = 6.5 × 10–6 in/(in·°F) for steel and 12.8 × 10–6 in/(in·°F) for aluminum.
Figure P-273 and P-274

Solution 273

Problem 274 At what temperature will the aluminum and steel segments in Prob. 273 have numerically equal stress? Solution 274

Problem 275 A rigid horizontal bar of negligible mass is connected to two rods as shown in Fig. P275. If the system is initially stress-free. Calculate the temperature change that will cause a tensile stress of 90 MPa in the brass rod. Assume that both rods are subjected to the change in temperature.

Solution 275

Problem 276 Four steel bars jointly support a mass of 15 Mg as shown in Fig. P-276. Each bar has a cross-sectional area of 600 mm2. Find the load carried by each bar after a temperature rise of 50°C. Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa.

Solution 276

Torsion
Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque or twisting moment T equivalent to F × d, which is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as shown in the figure. Such a bar is said to be in torsion.

TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS, τ
For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional shearing stress τ at a distance ρ from the center of the shaft is

where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and r is the outer radius. For solid cylindrical shaft:

For hollow cylindrical shaft:

ANGLE OF TWIST
The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is

where T is the torque in N·mm, L is the length of shaft in mm, G is shear modulus in MPa, J is the polar moment of inertia in mm4, D and d are diameter in mm, and r is the radius in mm.

POWER TRANSMITTED BY THE SHAFT
A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity ω (in radians per second) is being acted by a twisting moment T. The power transmitted by the shaft is

where T is the torque in N·m, f is the number of revolutions per second, and P is the power in watts.

Solved Problems in Torsion
Problem 304 A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 4 in. is subjected to a torque of 15 kip·ft. Determine the maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12 × 106 psi. Solution 304

Problem 305 What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist through more than 3° in a 6-m length when subjected to a torque of 12 kN·m? What maximum shearing stress is developed? Use G = 83 GPa. Solution 305

Problem 306 A steel marine propeller shaft 14 in. in diameter and 18 ft long is used to transmit 5000 hp at 189 rpm. If G = 12 × 106 psi, determine the maximum shearing stress. Solution 306

Problem 307 A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed at 80 MPa when twisted through 4°. Using G = 83 GPa, compute the shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at 20 Hz?

Solution 307

Problem 308 A 2-in-diameter steel shaft rotates at 240 rpm. If the shearing stress is limited to 12 ksi, determine the maximum horsepower that can be transmitted. Solution 308

Problem 309 A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing stress of 50 MPa or twisting through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters. Compute the proper diameter if G = 83 GPa. Solution 309

Problem 310 Show that the hollow circular shaft whose inner diameter is half the outer diameter has a torsional strength equal to 15/16 of that of a solid shaft of the same outside diameter. Solution 310

Problem 311 An aluminum shaft with a constant diameter of 50 mm is loaded by torques applied to gears attached to it as shown in Fig. P-311. Using G = 28 GPa, determine the relative angle of twist of gear D relative to gear A.

Solution 311

Problem 312 A flexible shaft consists of a 0.20-in-diameter steel wire encased in a stationary tube that fits closely enough to impose a frictional torque of 0.50 lb·in/in. Determine the maximum length of the shaft if the shearing stress is not to exceed 20 ksi. What will be the angular deformation of one end relative to the other end? G = 12 × 106 psi. Solution 312

Problem 313 Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular steel shaft of 100-mm outside diameter and an 80-mm inside diameter without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa or a twist of 0.5 deg/m. Use G = 83 GPa. Solution 313

Problem 314 The steel shaft shown in Fig. P-314 rotates at 4 Hz with 35 kW taken off at A, 20 kW removed at B, and 55 kW applied at C. Using G = 83 GPa, find the maximum shearing stress and the angle of rotation of gear A relative to gear C.

Solution 314

Problem 315 A 5-m steel shaft rotating at 2 Hz has 70 kW applied at a gear that is 2 m from the left end where 20 kW are removed. At the right end, 30 kW are removed and another 20 kW leaves the shaft at 1.5 m from the right end. (a) Find the uniform shaft diameter so that the shearing stress will not exceed 60 MPa. (b) If a uniform shaft diameter of 100 mm is specified, determine the angle by which one end of the shaft lags behind the other end. Use G = 83 GPa.

Solution 315

Problem 316 A compound shaft consisting of a steel segment and an aluminum segment is acted upon by two torques as shown in Fig. P-316. Determine the maximum permissible value of T subject to the following conditions: τst = 83 MPa, τal = 55 MPa, and the angle of rotation of the free end is limited to 6°. For steel, G = 83 GPa and for aluminum, G = 28 GPa.

Solution 316

Problem 317 A hollow bronze shaft of 3 in. outer diameter and 2 in. inner diameter is slipped over a solid steel shaft 2 in. in diameter and of the same length as the hollow shaft. The two shafts are then fastened rigidly together at their ends. For bronze, G = 6 × 106 psi, and for steel, G = 12 × 106 psi. What torque can be applied to the composite shaft without exceeding a shearing stress of 8000 psi in the bronze or 12 ksi in the steel?

Solution 317

Problem 318 A solid aluminum shaft 2 in. in diameter is subjected to two torques as shown in Fig. P318. Determine the maximum shearing stress in each segment and the angle of rotation of the free end. Use G = 4 × 106 psi.

Solution 318

Problem 319 The compound shaft shown in Fig. P-319 is attached to rigid supports. For the bronze segment AB, the diameter is 75 mm, τ ≤ 60 MPa, and G = 35 GPa. For the steel segment BC, the diameter is 50 mm, τ ≤ 80 MPa, and G = 83 GPa. If a = 2 m and b = 1.5 m, compute the maximum torque T that can be applied.

Solution 319

Problem 320 In Prob. 319, determine the ratio of lengths b/a so that each material will be stressed to its permissible limit. What torque T is required? Solution 320

Problem 321 A torque T is applied, as shown in Fig. P-321, to a solid shaft with built-in ends. Prove that the resisting torques at the walls are T1 = Tb/L and T2 = Ta/L. How would these values be changed if the shaft were hollow?

Solution 321

Problem 322 A solid steel shaft is loaded as shown in Fig. P-322. Using G = 83 GPa, determine the required diameter of the shaft if the shearing stress is limited to 60 MPa and the angle of rotation at the free end is not to exceed 4 deg.

Solution 322

Problem 323 A shaft composed of segments AC, CD, and DB is fastened to rigid supports and loaded as shown in Fig. P-323. For bronze, G = 35 GPa; aluminum, G = 28 GPa, and for steel, G = 83 GPa. Determine the maximum shearing stress developed in each segment.

Solution 323

Problem 324 The compound shaft shown in Fig. P-324 is attached to rigid supports. For the bronze segment AB, the maximum shearing stress is limited to 8000 psi and for the steel segment BC, it is limited to 12 ksi. Determine the diameters of each segment so that each material will be simultaneously stressed to its permissible limit when a torque T = 12 kip·ft is applied. For bronze, G = 6 × 106 psi and for steel, G = 12 × 106 psi.

Solution 324

Problem 325 The two steel shaft shown in Fig. P-325, each with one end built into a rigid support have flanges rigidly attached to their free ends. The shafts are to be bolted together at their flanges. However, initially there is a 6° mismatch in the location of the bolt holes as shown in the figure. Determine the maximum shearing stress in each shaft after the shafts are bolted together. Use G = 12 × 106 psi and neglect deformations of the bolts and flanges. Solution 325

Flanged Bolt Couplings

In shaft connection called flanged bolt couplings (see figure above), the torque is transmitted by the shearing force P created in he bolts that is assumed to be uniformly distributed. For any number of bolts n, the torque capacity of the coupling is

If a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque capacity is

where the subscript 1 refer to bolts on the outer circle an subscript 2 refer to bolts on the inner circle. See figure. For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial distances from the shaft axis. The shearing strains are related by

Using Hooke’s law for shear, G = τ / γ, we have

If the bolts on the two circles have the same area, A1 = A2, and if the bolts are made of the same material, G1 = G2, the relation between P1 and P2 reduces to

Solved Problems in Flanged Bolt Couplings

Problem 326 A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten 20-mmdiameter bolts spaced evenly around a bolt circle 400 mm in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the allowable shearing stress in the bolts is 40 MPa. Solution 326

Problem 327 A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten steel ½ -in.-diameter bolts spaced evenly around a bolt circle 14 in. in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the allowable shearing stress in the bolts is 6000 psi. Solution 327

Problem 328 A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 10-mmdiameter steel bolts on a bolt circle 400 mm in diameter, and six 10-mmdiameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle 300 mm in diameter, as shown in Fig. 3-7. What torque can be applied without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa in the bolts?

Solution 328

Problem 329 A torque of 700 lb-ft is to be carried by a flanged bolt coupling that consists of eight ½ in.-diameter steel bolts on a circle of diameter 12 in. and six ½ -in.-diameter steel bolts on a circle of diameter 9 in. Determine the shearing stress in the bolts. Solution 329

Problem 330 Determine the number of 10-mm-diameter steel bolts that must be used on the 400mm bolt circle of the coupling described in Prob. 328 to increase the torque capacity to 14 kN·m Solution 330

Problem 331 A flanged bolt coupling consists of six ½ -in. steel bolts evenly spaced around a bolt circle 12 in. in diameter, and four ¾ -in. aluminum bolts on a concentric bolt circle 8 in. in diameter. What torque can be applied without exceeding 9000 psi in the steel or 6000 psi in the aluminum? Assume Gst = 12 × 106 psi and Gal = 4 × 106 psi. Solution 331

Problem 332 In a rivet group subjected to a twisting couple T, show that the torsion formula τ = Tρ/J can be used to find the shearing stress t at the center of any rivet. Let J = ΣAρ2, where A is the area of a rivet at the radial distance ρ from the centroid of the rivet group. Solution 332

Problem 333 A plate is fastened to a fixed member by four 20-mm diameter rivets arranged as shown in Fig. P-333. Compute the maximum and minimum shearing stress developed.

Solution 333

Problem 334 Six 7/8-in-diameter rivets fasten the plate in Fig. P-334 to the fixed member. Using the results of Prob. 332, determine the average shearing stress caused in each rivet by the 14 kip loads. What additional loads P can be applied before the shearing stress in any rivet exceeds 8000 psi?

Solution 334

Problem 335 The plate shown in Fig. P-335 is fastened to the fixed member by five 10-mm-diameter rivets. Compute the value of the loads P so that the average shearing stress in any rivet does not exceed 70 MPa. (Hint: Use the results of Prob. 332.)

Solution 335

Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes
The torque applied to thin-walled tubes is expressed as

where T is the torque in N·mm, A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the tube (as shown in the stripefilled portion) in mm2, and q is the shear flow in N/mm. The average shearing stress across any thickness t is

Thus, torque T ca also be expressed as

Solved Problems in Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes
Problem 337 A torque of 600 N·m is applied to the rectangular section shown in Fig. P-337. Determine the wall thickness t so as not to exceed a shear stress of 80 MPa. What is the shear stress in the short sides? Neglect stress concentration at the corners. Solution 337

Problem 338 A tube 0.10 in. thick has an elliptical shape shown in Fig. P-338. What torque will cause a shearing stress of 8000 psi? Solution 338

Problem 339 A torque of 450 lb·ft is applied to the square section shown in Fig. P-339. Determine the smallest permissible dimension a if the shearing stress is limited to 6000 psi. Solution 339

Problem 340 A tube 2 mm thick has the shape shown in Fig. P-340. Find the shearing stress caused by a torque of 600 N·m. Solution 340

Problem 341 Derive the torsion formula τ = Tρ/J for a solid circular section by assuming the section is composed of a series of concentric thin circular tubes. Assume that the shearing stress at any point is proportional to its radial distance. Solution 341

Helical Springs

When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire of round rod of diameter d wound into a helix of mean radius R with n number of turns, is subjected to an axial load P produces the following stresses and elongation:

The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct shearing stress τ1 = P/A and the torsional shearing stress τ2 = Tr/J, with T = PR.

This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This is used for light spring where the ratio d/4R is small. For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the spring, a more precise formula is given by: (A.M.Wahl Formula)

where m is called the spring index and (4m – 1) / (4m – 4) is the Wahl Factor. The elongation of the bar is

Notice that the deformation δ is directly proportional to the applied load P. The ratio of P to δ is called the spring constant k and is equal to

SPRINGS IN SERIES
For two or more springs with spring laid in series, the resulting spring constant k is given by

where k1, k2,… are the spring constants for different springs.

SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

Solved Problems in Helical Springs
Problem 343 Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical steel spring composed of 20 turns of 20-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 90 mm when the spring is supporting a load of 1.5 kN. Use Eq. (3-10) and G = 83 GPa. Solution 343

Problem 344 Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a bronze helical spring composed of 20 turns of 1.0-in.-diameter wire on a mean radius of 4 in. when the spring is supporting a load of 500 lb. Use Eq. (3-10) and G = 6 × 106 psi. Solution 344

Problem 345 A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire ¾ in. in diameter around a forming cylinder 8 in. in diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit an elongation of 4 in. without exceeding a shearing stress of 18 ksi. Use Eq. (3-9) and G = 12 × 106 psi. Solution 345

Problem 346 Compute the maximum shearing stress developed in a phosphor bronze spring having mean diameter of 200 mm and consisting of 24 turns of 200-mm-diameter wire when the spring is stretched 100 mm. Use Eq. (3-10) and G = 42 GPa.

Solution 346

Problem 347 Two steel springs arranged in series as shown in Fig. P-347 supports a load P. The upper spring has 12 turns of 25-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 100 mm. The lower spring consists of 10 turns of 20-mmdiameter wire on a mean radius of 75 mm. If the maximum shearing stress in either spring must not exceed 200 MPa, compute the maximum value of P and the total elongation of the assembly. Use Eq. (3-10) and G = 83 GPa. Compute the equivalent spring constant by dividing the load by the total elongation.

Solution 347

Problem 348 A rigid bar, pinned at O, is supported by two identical springs as shown in Fig. P-348. Each spring consists of 20 turns of ¾-in-diameter wire having a mean diameter of 6 in. Determine the maximum load W that may be supported if the shearing stress in the springs is limited to 20 ksi. Use Eq. (3-9).

Solution 348

Problem 349 A rigid bar, hinged at one end, is supported by two identical springs as shown in Fig. P349. Each spring consists of 20 turns of 10-mm wire having a mean diameter of 150 mm. Compute the maximum shearing stress in the springs, using Eq. (3-9). Neglect the mass of the rigid bar.

Solution 349

Problem 350 As shown in Fig. P-350, a homogeneous 50-kg rigid block is suspended by the three springs whose lower ends were originally at the same level. Each steel spring has 24 turns of 10-mm-diameter on a mean diameter of 100 mm, and G = 83 GPa. The bronze spring has 48 turns of 20-mm-diameter wire on a mean diameter of 150 mm, and G = 42 GPa. Compute the maximum shearing stress in each spring using Eq. (3-9).

Solution 350

Shear & Moment in Beams
DEFINITION OF A BEAM
A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the longitudinal of the bar. According to determinacy, a beam may be determinate or indeterminate.

STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS
Statically determinate beams are those beams in which the reactions of the supports may be determined by the use of the equations of static equilibrium. The beams shown below are examples of statically determinate beams.

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam exceeds the number of equations in static equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically indeterminate. In order to solve the reactions of the beam, the static equations must be supplemented by equations based upon the elastic deformations of the beam. The degree of indeterminacy is taken as the difference between the umber of reactions to the number of equations in static equilibrium that can be applied. In the case of the propped beam shown, there are three reactions R1, R2, and M and only two equations (∑M = 0 and sum;Fv = 0) can be applied, thus the beam is indeterminate to the first degree (3 – 2 = 1).

TYPES OF LOADING
Loads applied to the beam may consist of a concentrated load (load applied at a point), uniform load, uniformly varying load, or an applied couple or moment. These loads are shown in the following figures.

Shear and Moment Diagrams
Consider a simple beam shown of length L that carries a uniform load of w (N/m) throughout its length and is held in equilibrium by reactions R1 and R2. Assume that the beam is cut at point C a distance of x from he left support and the portion of the beam to the right of C be removed. The portion removed must then be replaced by vertical shearing force V together with a couple M to hold the left portion of the bar in equilibrium under the action of R1 and wx. The couple M is called the resisting moment or moment and the force V is called the resisting shear or shear. The sign of V and M are taken to be positive if they have the senses indicated above.

Solved Problems in Shear and Moment Diagrams
INSTRUCTION
Write shear and moment equations for the beams in the following problems. In each problem, let x be the distance measured from left end of the beam. Also, draw shear and moment diagrams, specifying values at all change of loading positions and at points of zero shear. Neglect the mass of the beam in each problem. Problem 403 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-403.

Solution 403

Problem 404 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-404.

Solution 404

Problem 405 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-405.

Solution 405

Problem 406 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-406.

Solution 406

Problem 407 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-407.

Solution 407

Problem 408 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-408.

Solution 408

Problem 409 Cantilever beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-409.

Solution 409

Problem 410 Cantilever beam carrying the uniformly varying load shown in Fig. P-410.

Solution 410

Problem 411 Cantilever beam carrying a distributed load with intensity varying from wo at the free end to zero at the wall, as shown in Fig. P-411.

Solution 411

Problem 412 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-412.

Solution 412

Problem 413 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-413.

Solution 413

Problem 414 Cantilever beam carrying the load shown in Fig. P-414.

Solution 414

Problem 415 Cantilever beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-415.

Solution 415

Problem 416 Beam carrying uniformly varying load shown in Fig. P-416.

Solution 416

Problem 417 Beam carrying the triangular loading shown in Fig. P- 417.

Solution 417

Problem 418 Cantilever beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-418.

Solution 418

Problem 419 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-419.

Solution 419

Problem 420 A total distributed load of 30 kips supported by a uniformly distributed reaction as shown in Fig. P-420.

Solution 420

Problem 421 Write the shear and moment equations as functions of the angle θ for the built-in arch shown in Fig. P-421.

Solution 421

Problem 422 Write the shear and moment equations for the semicircular arch as shown in Fig. P-422 if (a) the load P is vertical as shown, and (b) the load is applied horizontally to the left at the top of the arch.

Solution 422

Relationship between Load, Shear, and Moment
The vertical shear at C in the figure shown in previous section is taken as

where R1 = R2 = wL/2

If we differentiate M with respect to x:

thus,

Thus, the rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x is equal to the shearing force, or the slope of the moment diagram at the given point is the shear at that point. Differentiate V with respect to x gives

Thus, the rate of change of the shearing force with respect to x is equal to the load or the slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.

PROPERTIES OF SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams: 1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the moment at that section. 2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that point. 3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.

4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in reference to property number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the tangent drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal. 5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward. 6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave downward.

SIGN CONVENTIONS
The customary sign conventions for shearing force and bending moment are represented by the figures below. A force that tends to bend the beam downward is said to produce a positive bending moment. A force that tends to shear the left portion of the beam upward with respect to the right portion is said to produce a positive shearing force.

An easier way of determining the sign of the bending moment at any section is that upward forces always cause positive bending moments regardless of whether they act to the left or to the right of the exploratory section.

Solved Problems in Relationship between Load, Shear, and Moment
INSTRUCTION
Without writing shear and moment equations, draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beams specified in the following problems. Give numerical values at all change of loading positions and at all points of zero shear. (Note to instructor: Problems 403 to 420 may also be assigned for solution by semi graphical method describes in this article.)

Problem 425 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-425.

Solution 425

Problem 426 Cantilever beam acted upon by a uniformly distributed load and a couple as shown in Fig. P-426.

Solution 426

Problem 427 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-427.

Solution 427

Problem 428 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-428.

Solution 428

Problem 429 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-429.

Solution 429

Problem 430 Beam loaded as shown in P-430.

Solution 430

Problem 431 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-431.

Solution 431

Problem 432 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-432.

Solution 432

Problem 433 Overhang beam loaded by a force and a couple as shown in Fig. P-433.

Solution 433

Problem 434 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-434.

Solution 434

Problem 435 Beam loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P-435.

Solution 435

Problem 436 A distributed load is supported by two distributedreactions as shown in Fig. P-436.

Solution 436

Problem 437 Cantilever beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-437

Solution 437

Problem 438 The beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-438 consists of two segments joined by a frictionless hinge at which the bending moment is zero.

Solution 438

Problem 439 A beam supported on three reactions as shown in Fig. P-439 consists of two segments joined by frictionless hinge at which the bending moment is zero.

Solution 439

Problem 440 A frame ABCD, with rigid corners at B and C, supports the concentrated load as shown in Fig. P-440. (Draw shear and moment diagrams for each of the three parts of the frame.)

Solution 440

Problem 441 A beam ABCD is supported by a roller at A and a hinge at D. It is subjected to the loads shown in Fig. P-441, which act at the ends of the vertical members BE and CF. These vertical members are rigidly attached to the beam at B and C. (Draw shear and moment diagrams for the beam ABCD only.)

Solution 441

Problem 442 Beam carrying the uniformly varying load shown in Fig. P-442.

Solution 442

Problem 443 Beam carrying the triangular loads shown in Fig. P-443.

Solution 443

Problem 444 Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-444.

Solution 444

Problem 445 Beam carrying the loads shown in Fig. P-445.

Solution 445

Problem 446 Beam loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P-446.

Solution 446

Finding the Load & Moment Diagrams with Given Shear Diagram
INSTRUCTION
In the following problems, draw moment and load diagrams corresponding to the given shear diagrams. Specify values at all change of load positions and at all points of zero shear. Problem 447 Shear diagram as shown in Fig. P-447.

Solution 447

Problem 448 Shear diagram as shown in Fig. P-448.

Solution 448

Problem 449 Shear diagram as shown in Fig. P-449.

Solution 449

Problem 450 Shear diagram as shown in Fig. P-450.

Solution 450

Problem 451 Shear diagram as shown in Fig. P-451.

Solution 451

Moving Loads
From the previous section, we see that the maximum moment occurs at a point of zero shears. For beams loaded with concentrated loads, the point of zero shears usually occurs under a concentrated load and so the maximum moment. Beams and girders such as in a bridge or an overhead crane are subject to moving concentrated loads, which are at fixed distance with each other. The problem here is to determine the moment under each load when each load is in a position to cause a maximum moment. The largest value of these moments governs the design of the beam.

SINGLE MOVING LOAD
For a single moving load, the maximum moment occurs when the load is at the midspan and the maximum shear occurs when the load is very near the support (usually assumed to lie over the support).

TWO MOVING LOADS
For two moving loads, the maximum shear occurs at the reaction when the larger load is over that support. The maximum moment is given by

where Ps is the smaller load, Pb is the bigger load, and P is the total load (P = Ps + Pb).

THREE OR MORE MOVING LOADS
In general, the bending moment under a particular load is a maximum when the center of the beam is midway between that load and the resultant of all the loads then on the span. With this rule, we compute the maximum moment under each load, and use the biggest of the moments for the design. Usually, the biggest of these moments occurs under the biggest load. The maximum shear occurs at the reaction where the resultant load is nearest. Usually, it happens if the biggest load is over that support and as many a possible of the remaining loads are still on the span. The maximum shear occurs at the reaction where the resultant load is nearest. Usually, it happens if the biggest load is over that support and as many a possible of the remaining loads are still on the span. In determining the largest moment and shear, it is sometimes necessary to check the condition when the bigger loads are on the span and the rest of the smaller loads are outside.

Solved Problems in Moving Loads

Problem 453 A truck with axle loads of 40 kN and 60 kN on a wheel base of 5 m rolls across a 10-m span. Compute the maximum bending moment and the maximum shearing force. Solution 453

Problem 454 Repeat Prob. 453 using axle loads of 30 kN and 50 kN on a wheel base of 4 m crossing an 8-m span. Solution 454

Problem 455 A tractor weighing 3000 lb, with a wheel base of 9 ft, carries 1800 lb of its load on the rear wheels. Compute the maximum moment and maximum shear when crossing a 14 ft-span. Solution 455

Problem 456 Three wheel loads roll as a unit across a 44-ft span. The loads are P1 = 4000 lb and P2 = 8000 lb separated by 9 ft, and P3 = 6000 lb at 18 ft from P2. Determine the maximum moment and maximum shear in the simply supported span. Solution 456

Problem 457 A truck and trailer combination crossing a 12-m span has axle loads of 10, 20, and 30 kN separated respectively by distances of 3 and 5 m. Compute the maximum moment and maximum shear developed in the span. Solution 457

Stresses in Beams
Forces and couples acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses) and shearing stresses on any cross section of the beam and deflection perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam and no forces act on it, the bending is said to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the bending is called ordinary bending.

ASSUMPTIONS
In using the following formulas for flexural and shearing stresses, it is assumed that a plane section of the beam normal to its longitudinal axis prior to loading remains plane after the forces and couples have been applied, and that the beam is initially straight and of uniform cross section and that the moduli of elasticity in tension and compression are equal.

Flexure Formula
Stresses caused by the bending moment are known as flexural or bending stresses. Consider a beam to be loaded as shown.

Consider a fiber at a distance y from the neutral axis, because of the beam’s curvature, as the effect of bending moment, the fiber is stretched by an amount of cd. Since the curvature of the beam is very small, bcd and Oba are considered as similar triangles. The strain on this fiber is

By Hooke’s law, ε = σ / E, then

which means that the stress is proportional to the distance y from the neutral axis.

Considering a differential area dA at a distance y from N.A., the force acting over the area is

The resultant of all the elemental moment about N.A. must be equal to the bending moment on the section.

but

then

substituting ρ = Ey / fb

then

and

The bending stress due to beams curvature is

The beam curvature is:

where ρ is the radius of curvature of the beam in mm (in), M is the bending moment in N·mm (lb·in), fb is the flexural stress in MPa (psi), I is the centroidal moment of inertia in mm4 (in4), and c is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber in mm (in).

SECTION MODULUS
In the formula

the ratio I/c is called the section modulus and is usually denoted by S with units of mm3 (in3). The maximum bending stress may then be written as

This form is convenient because the values of S are available in handbooks for a wide range of standard structural shapes.

Solved Problems in Flexure Formula

Problem 503 A cantilever beam, 50 mm wide by 150 mm high and 6 m long, carries a load that varies uniformly from zero at the free end to 1000 N/m at the wall. (a) Compute the magnitude and location of the maximum flexural stress. (b) Determine the type and magnitude of the stress in a fiber 20 mm from the top of the beam at a section 2 m from the free end.

Solution 503

Problem 504 A simply supported beam, 2 in wide by 4 in high and 12 ft long is subjected to a concentrated load of 2000 lb at a point 3 ft from one of the supports. Determine the maximum fiber stress and the stress in a fiber located 0.5 in from the top of the beam at midspan. Solution 504

Problem 505 A high strength steel band saw, 20 mm wide by 0.80 mm thick, runs over pulleys 600 mm in diameter. What maximum flexural stress is developed? What minimum diameter pulleys can be used without exceeding a flexural stress of 400 MPa? Assume E = 200 GPa. Solution 505

Problem 506 A flat steel bar, 1 inch wide by ¼ inch thick and 40 inches long, is bent by couples applied at the ends so that the midpoint deflection is 1.0 inch. Compute the stress in the bar and the magnitude of the couples. Use E = 29 × 106 psi. Solution 506

Problem 507 In a laboratory test of a beam loaded by end couples, the fibers at layer AB in Fig. P507 are found to increase 60 × 10–3 mm whereas those at CD decrease 100 × 10–3 mm in the 200-mm-gage length. Using E = 70 GPa, determine the flexural stress in the top and bottom fibers.

Solution 507

Problem 508 Determine the minimum height h of the beam shown in Fig. P-508 if the flexural stress is not to exceed 20 MPa.

Solution 508

Problem 509 A section used in aircraft is constructed of tubes connected by thin webs as shown in Fig. P-509. Each tube has a cross-sectional area of 0.20 in2. If the average stress in the tubes is no to exceed 10 ksi, determine the total uniformly distributed load that can be supported in a simple span 12 ft long. Neglect the effect of the webs.

Solution 509

Problem 510 A 50-mm diameter bar is used as a simply supported beam 3 m long. Determine the largest uniformly distributed load that can be applied over the right two-thirds of the beam if the flexural stress is limited to 50 MPa.

Solution 510

Problem 511 A simply supported rectangular beam, 2 in wide by 4 in deep, carries a uniformly distributed load of 80 lb/ft over its entire length. What is the maximum length of the beam if the flexural stress is limited to 3000 psi? Solution 511

Problem 512 The circular bar 1 inch in diameter shown in Fig. P-512 is bent into a semicircle with a mean radius of 2 ft. If P = 400 lb and F = 200 lb, compute the maximum flexural stress developed in section a-a. Neglect the deformation of the bar.

Solution 512

Problem 513 A rectangular steel beam, 2 in wide by 3 in deep, is loaded as shown in Fig. P-513. Determine the magnitude and the location of the maximum flexural stress.

Solution 513

Problem 514 The right-angled frame shown in Fig. P-514 carries a uniformly distributed loading equivalent to 200 N for each horizontal projected meter of the frame; that is, the total load is 1000 N. Compute the maximum flexural stress at section a-a if the cross-section is 50 mm square.

Solution 514

Problem 515 Repeat Prob. 524 to find the maximum flexural stress at section b-b. Solution 515

Problem 516 A timber beam AB, 6 in wide by 10 in deep and 10 ft long, is supported by a guy wire AC in the position shown in Fig. P-516. The beam carries a load, including its own weight, of 500 lb for each foot of its length. Compute the maximum flexural stress at the middle of the beam.

Solution 516

Problem 517 A rectangular steel bar, 15 mm wide by 30 mm high and 6 m long, is simply supported at its ends. If the density of steel is 7850 kg/m3, determine the maximum bending stress caused by the weight of the bar. Solution 517

Problem 518 A cantilever beam 4 m long is composed of two C200 × 28 channels riveted back to back. What uniformly distributed load can be carried, in addition to the weight of the beam, without exceeding a flexural stress of 120 MPa if (a) the webs are vertical and (b) the webs are horizontal? Refer to Appendix B of text book for channel properties. Solution 518

Problem 519 A 30-ft beam, simply supported at 6 ft from either end carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity wo over its entire length. The beam is made by welding two S18 × 70 (see appendix B of text book) sections along their flanges to form the section shown in Fig. P-519. Calculate the maximum value of wo if the flexural stress is limited to 20 ksi. Be sure to include the weight of the beam.

Solution 519

Problem 520 A beam with an S310 × 74 section (see Appendix B of textbook) is used as a simply supported beam 6 m long. Find the maximum uniformly distributed load that can be applied over the entire length of the beam, in addition to the weight of the beam, if the flexural stress is not to exceed 120 MPa. Solution 520

Problem 521 A beam made by bolting two C10 × 30 channels back to back, is simply supported at its ends. The beam supports a central concentrated load of 12 kips and a uniformly distributed load of 1200 lb/ft, including the weight of the beam. Compute the maximum length of the beam if the flexural stress is not to exceed 20 ksi. Solution 521

Problem 522 A box beam is composed of four planks, each 2 inches by 8 inches, securely spiked together to form the section shown in Fig. P-522. Show that INA = 981.3 in4. If wo = 300 lb/ft, find P to cause a maximum flexural stress of 1400 psi.

Solution 522

Problem 523 Solve Prob. 522 if wo = 600 lb/ft.

Solution 523

Problem 524 A beam with an S380 × 74 section carries a total uniformly distributed load of 3W and a concentrated load W, as shown in Fig. P-524. Determine W if the flexural stress is limited to 120 MPa.

Solution 524

Problem 525 A square timber beam used as a railroad tie is supported by a uniformly distributed loads and carries two uniformly distributed loads each totaling 48 kN as shown in Fig. P525. Determine the size of the section if the maximum stress is limited to 8 MPa.

Solution 525

Problem 526 A wood beam 6 in wide by 12 in deep is loaded as shown in Fig. P-526. If the maximum flexural stress is 1200 psi, find the maximum values of wo and P which can be applied simultaneously?

Solution 526

Problem 527 In Prob. 526, if the load on the overhang is 600 lb/ft and the overhang is x ft long, find the maximum values of P and x that can be used simultaneously. Solution 527

Economic Sections
From the flexure formula fb = My / I, it can be seen that the bending stress at the neutral axis, where y = 0, is zero and increases linearly outwards. This means that for a rectangular or circular section a large portion of the cross section near the middle section is understressed. For steel beams or composite beams, instead of adopting the rectangular shape, the area may be arranged so as to give more area on the outer fiber and maintaining the same overall depth, and saving a lot of weight.

When using a wide flange or I-beam section for long beams, the compression flanges tend to buckle horizontally sidewise. This buckling is a column effect, which may be prevented by providing lateral support such as a floor system so that the full allowable stresses may be used, otherwise the stress should be reduced. The reduction of stresses for these beams will be discussed in steel design. In selecting a structural section to be used as a beam, the resisting moment must be equal or greater than the applied bending moment. Note: ( fb )max = M/S.

The equation above indicates that the required section modulus of the beam must be equal or greater than the ratio of bending moment to the maximum allowable stress. A check that includes the weight of the selected beam is necessary to complete the calculation. In checking, the beams resisting moment must be equal or greater than the sum of the live-load moment caused by the applied loads and the dead-load moment caused by dead weight of the beam.

Dividing both sides of the above equation by ( fb )max, we obtain the checking equation

Assume that the beams in the following problems are properly braced against lateral deflection. Be sure to include the weight of the beam itself.

Solved Problems in Economic Sections
Problem 529 A 10-m beam simply supported at the ends carries a uniformly distributed load of 16 kN/m over its entire length. What is the lightest W shape beam that will not exceed a flexural stress of 120 MPa? What is the actual maximum stress in the beam selected? Solution 529

Problem 530 Repeat Prob. 529 if the distributed load is 12 kN/m and the length of the beam is 8 m. Solution 530

Problem 531 A 15-ft beam simply supported at the ends carries a concentrated load of 9000 lb at midspan. Select the lightest S section that can be employed using an allowable stress of 18 ksi. What is the actual maximum stress in the beam selected? Solution 531

Problem 532 A beam simply supported at the ends of a 25-ft span carries a uniformly distributed load of 1000 lb/ft over its entire length. Select the lightest S section that can be used if the allowable stress is 20 ksi. What is the actual maximum stress in the beam selected? Solution 532

Problem 533 A beam simply supported on a 36-ft span carries a uniformly distributed load of 2000 lb/ft over the middle 18 ft. Using an allowable stress of 20 ksi, determine the lightest suitable W shape beam. What is the actual maximum stress in the selected beam? Solution 533

Problem 534 Repeat Prob. 533 if the uniformly distributed load is changed to 5000 lb/ft. Solution 534

Problem 535 A simply supported beam 24 ft long carries a uniformly distributed load of 2000 lb/ft over its entire length and a concentrated load of 12 kips at 8 ft from left end. If the allowable stress is 18 ksi, select the lightest suitable W shape. What is the actual maximum stress in the selected beam? Solution 535

Problem 536 A simply supported beam 10 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m over its entire length and a concentrated load of 40 kN at midspan. If the allowable stress is 120 MPa, determine the lightest W shape beam that can be used. Solution 536

Floor Framing
In floor framing, the subfloor is supported by light beams called floor joists or simply joists which in turn supported by heavier beams called girders then girders pass the load to columns. Typically, joist act as simply supported beam carrying a uniform load of magnitude p over an area of sL, where p = floor load per unit area L = length (or span) of joist s = center to center spacing of joists and wo = sp = intensity of distributed load in joist.

Solved Problems in Floor Framing

Problem 538 Floor joists 50 mm wide by 200 mm high, simply supported on a 4-m span, carry a floor loaded at 5 kN/m2. Compute the center-line spacing between joists to develop a bending stress of 8 MPa. What safe floor load could be carried on a center-line spacing of 0.40 m? Solution 538

Problem 539 Timbers 12 inches by 12 inches, spaced 3 feet apart on centers, are driven into the ground and act as cantilever beams to back-up the sheet piling of a coffer dam. What is the maximum safe height of water behind the dam if water weighs = 62.5 lb/ft3 and ( fb )max = 1200 psi? Solution 539

Problem 540 Timbers 8 inches wide by 12 inches deep and 15 feet long, supported at top and bottom, back up a dam restraining water 9 feet deep. Water weighs 62.5 lb/ft3. (a) Compute the center-line spacing of the timbers to cause fb = 1000 psi. (b) Will this spacing be safe if the maximum fb, ( fb )max = 1600 psi, and the water reaches its maximum depth of 15 ft?

Solution 540

Problem 541 The 18-ft long floor beams in a building are simply supported at their ends and carry a floor load of 0.6 lb/in2. If the beams have W10 × 30 sections, determine the center-line spacing using an allowable flexural stress of 18 ksi. Solution 541

Problem 542 Select the lightest W shape sections that can be used for the beams and girders in Illustrative Problem 537 of text book if the allowable flexural stress is 120 MPa. Neglect the weights of the members.

Solution 542

Problem 543 A portion of the floor plan of a building is shown in Fig. P-543. The total loading (including live and dead loads) in each bay is as shown. Select the lightest suitable W if the allowable flexural stress is 120 MPa.

Solution 543

Unsymmetrical Beams
Flexural Stress varies directly linearly with distance from the neutral axis. Thus for a symmetrical section such as wide flange, the compressive and tensile stresses will be the same. This will be desirable if the material is both equally strong in tension and compression. However, there are materials, such as cast iron, which are strong in compression than in tension. It is therefore desirable to use a beam with unsymmetrical cross section giving more area in the compression part making the stronger fiber located at a greater distance from the neutral axis than the weaker fiber. Some of these sections are shown below.

The proportioning of these sections is such that the ratio of the distance of the neutral axis from the outermost fibers in tension and in compression is the same as the ratio of the allowable stresses in tension and in compression. Thus, the allowable stresses are reached simultaneously. In this section, the following notation will be use: fbt = flexure stress of fiber in tension fbc = flexure stress of fiber in compression N.A. = neutral axis yt = distance of fiber in tension from N.A. yc = distance of fiber in compression from N.A. Mr = resisting moment Mc = resisting moment in compression Mt = resisting moment in tension

Solved Problems in Unsymmetrical Beams
Problem 548 The inverted T section of a 4-m simply supported beam has the properties shown in Fig. P-548. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity wo over its entire length. Determine wo if fbt ≤ 40 MPa and fbc ≤ 80 MPa.

Solution 548

Problem 549 A beam with cross-section shown in Fig. P-549 is loaded in such a way that the maximum moments are +1.0P lb·ft and -1.5P lb·ft, where P is the applied load in pounds. Determine the maximum safe value of P if the working stresses are 4 ksi in tension and 10 ksi in compression.

Solution 549

Problem 550 Resolve Prob. 549 if the maximum moments are +2.5P lb·ft and -5.0P lb·ft. Solution 550

Problem 551 Find the maximum tensile and compressive flexure stresses for the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P-551.

Solution 551

Problem 552 A cantilever beam carries the force and couple shown in Fig. P-552. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses developed in the beam.

Solution 552

Problem 553 Determine the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses developed in the beam as shown in Fig. P-553.

Solution 553

Problem 554 Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses developed in the overhanging beam shown in Fig. P-554. The cross-section is an inverted T with the given properties.

Solution 554

Problem 555 A beam carries a concentrated load W and a total uniformly distributed load of 4W as shown in Fig. P-555. What safe value of W can be applied if fbc ≤ 100 MPa and fbt ≤ 60 MPa? Can a greater load be applied if the section is inverted? Explain.

Solution 555

Problem 556 A T beam supports the three concentrated loads shown in Fig. P-556. Prove that the NA is 3.5 in. above the bottom and that INA = 97.0 in4. Then use these values to determine the maximum value of P so that fbt ≤ 4 ksi and fbc ≤ 10 ksi.

Solution 556

Problem 557 A cast-iron beam 10 m long and supported as shown in Fig. P-557 carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity wo (including its own weight). The allowable stresses are fbt ≤ 20 MPa and fbc ≤ 80 MPa. Determine the maximum safe value of wo if x = 1.0 m.

Solution 557

Problem 558 In Prob. 557, find the values of x and wo so that wo is a maximum. Solution 558