...Associate Program Material DNA Worksheet Answer the following in at least 100 words: 1. Describe the structure of DNA. DNA molecules are composed of two strands that form a helical ascending spiral. They fit together like the opposing teeth of a zipper and are held together by weak interactions called hydrogen bonds. These two strands is a long string of subunits called nucleotides, each attached to the one immediately about it and the one immediately below it to form a long chain. Each nucleotide contains a five-carbon sugar. The five-carbon sugar contains a five-membered ring with an oxygen atom as one of the vertices. Each nucleotide also features a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base; these bases are typically represented by adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine. The base is attached to carbon 1 of the sugar, biologist denote each of the carbons in the sugar using a number from 1 through 5, where 1 represents the carbon to which the base is attached. 2. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? The genotype of an organism is the sum total of all the genes that it inherits. It is sort of like a blue print that is designed to serve as a guide in the development of the organism, so that it will become the same kind of creature as the parent or parents that it came from. The phenotype, the organism’s physical trait arises from the actions of a wide variety of proteins. For example structural proteins help make up the body of an...
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... Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is found in basically all organisms including humans. It is the hereditary material that basically every person has and is found in both the cell nucleus and the mitochondria. Most of a person’s DNA is nuclear DNA because it is found in the nucleus; small portions of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria, giving this type the name mtDNA or mitochondrial DNA. DNA has many properties; one of its most important is that it can copy itself. When this process occurs, the double helix strands of DNA are used as a pattern for replicating the base sequences. This is crucial during cell division due to the imperative need for each new cell to carry a precise copy of the DNA found in the old cell. Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U) are five out of about three billion chemical bases that store DNA’s coded information; over 99% of these bases have been found to be consistent in all people. The sequence of the bases is extremely important because the order that they are found in, reveals the information necessary and accessible for creating and upholding an organism. A simple way to comprehend this explanation is that DNA works in similar ways to alphabet letters; letters are put in certain orders to form a word or sentence and if they were to be mixed up, they would have a much different meaning. DNA is composed of two long strands that form a spiral made up of nucleotides called...
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...The discovery of the structure of DNA James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin What did they discover about DNA? James Watson, along with Francis Crick, studied the molecular structure of DNA that had been extracted from cells and showed how it could serve as the chemical basis of inheritance. Although it is commonly known that everything they "discovered" they stole from Rosalind Franklin, who proceeded to obligingly die. That said they're incorrectly famous for discovering that DNA is composed of sequences of purines and pyramidines hydrogen-bonded together and held in place by two sugar-phosphate strands that form a double helix due to more hydrogen bonding. Maurice Wilkins is not credited for the actual discovery of the structure of DNA rather that distinction goes to James Watson and Francis Crick and is known as the Watson-Crick model. Wilkins did share in the Nobel prize because his work in spectroscopic studies on nucleic acids led to the use of X-ray crystallography to define the Watson-Crick model of DNA. Rosalind Franklin discovered the molecular structures of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal and graphite. She was a British biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer who was best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA which led to discovery of DNA double helix. Rosalind Franklin's critical contributions to the Crick and Watson model include an X-ray photograph of B-DNA (called photograph 51), that was briefly shown to James Watson...
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...Science Article: 4-Strand DNA Structure Found in Cells Everyone knows that DNA is a double-stranded helix that coils on itself to create a dense chromosome. But scientists have discovered that there is a square-shaped type of DNA structure that can be easily created in the lab by folding synthetic DNA strands that are rich in guanine. A type of hydrogen bonding puts these DNA structures together, and scientists believe that these “G-quadruplex structures” occasionally form in DNA of living cells. Shankar Balasubramanian at the University of Cambridge, UK, provided strong evidence that G-quadruplexes are unusual structures might have important biological functions. These structures have protective tips of chromosomes, also known as telomeres. According to this article, there have been studies in cancer cells that have shown that small molecules that bind and stabilize G-quadruplex structures cause DNA damage at telomeres. Scientists believe that these quadruplex structures can be created in other areas in order to regulate cancer-causing genes. Balasubramanian and his colleagues engineered an antibody that tightly fits to the G-quadruplex structures but does not fit with the double helix. He believes that if they learn to better control the genes or other cellular processes that become diseased such as cancer. I found this article very interesting mainly because I had cancer at a young age and knowing that they are getting closer and closer to finding a cure makes me feel...
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...Nitrogenous bases in DNA DNA is the principle molecule responsible for carrying genetic information within almost all living organisms for their development. They also provide some of the apparatus by which the instructions are carried out. This excludes viruses, as they use RNA, to carry their genetic information. (Image 1: DNA molecule, nucleotide, base pairing. Reference: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/422006/DNA-sequencing ) Structurally, the DNA molecule consists of two intertwined strands, the margins of which are chains of sugar and phosphate groups. The chains are linked by pairs of substances called bases, of which there are: adenine, guanine, thymine and...
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...effect of alkalinity and temperature on the structure of DNA. The control of the experiment was test tube A because no variables were tested. This test tube was necessary in the experiment because it behaved as a baseline to compare with the results of the experimental variables. Test tube B was exposed to a high temperature (100°C) to observe the effect of high temperatures on DNA structure while test tube C was exposed to an alkaline pH through the use to sodium hydroxide to observe the effect of alkaline environments on DNA structure. To draw conclusions about the effects of these variables, spooling was utilized to observe how much DNA would adhere to a glass rod. DNA can be spooled because...
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..."Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" was an article published by Francis Crick and James D. Watson in the scientific journal Nature in its 171st volume on pages 737–738 . It was the first publication which described the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA. This article is often termed a "pearl" of science because it is brief and contains the answer to a fundamental mystery about living organisms. This mystery was the question of how it is possible that genetic instructions are held inside organisms and how they are passed from generation to generation. The article presents a simple and elegant solution, which surprised many biologists at the time who believed that DNA transmission was going to be more difficult to deduce and understand. The discovery had a major impact on biology, particularly in the field of genetics, enabling later researchers to understand the genetic code . Origins of molecular biology The application of physics and chemistry to biological problems led to the development of molecular biology. Molecular biology is particularly concerned with the flow and consequences of biological information at the level of genes and proteins. The discovery of the DNA double helix made clear that genes are functionally defined parts of DNA molecules and that there must be a way for cells to make use of their DNA genes in order to make proteins. Linus Pauling was a chemist who was very influential in developing...
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...8.1.1 Study: DNA Replication Study Sheet Biology Core (S3342899) Main idea 1: DNA is a long chain of nucleotides. Represents a ring of five carbon atoms. Four carbons and an oxygen make up the five-membered ring; the other carbon branches off the ring. Represents a ring of five carbon atoms. Four carbons and an oxygen make up the five-membered ring; the other carbon branches off the ring. A salt or ester of phosphoric acid, containing PO43− or a related anion or a group such as —OPO(OH)2 A salt or ester of phosphoric acid, containing PO43− or a related anion or a group such as —OPO(OH)2 * Adenine – A * Guanine – G * Cytosine – C * Thymine - T * Adenine – A * Guanine – G * Cytosine – C * Thymine - T Deoxyribose Deoxyribose Main idea 2: The structure of DNA is a double helix. It was discovered through the work of several scientists. Hydrogen bonds play important roles in the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins. (In alpha helices and beta sheets, the three dimensional, folded structure of the protein, and the joining together of subunits of the protein). In DNA, H bonds hold together the two strands. This attraction is weak enough so that the strands can be pulled apart in replication and transcription. Hydrogen bonds play important roles in the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins. (In alpha helices and beta sheets, the three dimensional, folded structure of the protein, and...
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...Aditya Bhagirath Rev. Chux Okochi SPE1000c 12 October 2015 Key Word Outline I. Introduction A. DNA is a term we throw around so often in the science world B. What is it? How does its structure influence our lives? C. Who discovered it? Where did this happen? D. The structure of DNA is quite important to our somatic function E. Applications of DNA in our daily life, as well as man made functions that are incredibly important to our development in civilization * PCR and Gel Electrophoresis : Polymerase Chain Reaction with Gel Electrophoresis * Monoclonal and Polyclonal antibodies * DNA genotyping : Used in conjunction with PCR/Gel Electrophoresis to compare DNA for filial testing(maternity/paternity) as well as CSI for identification of potential suspects(forensics); can also be used to trace pedigree F. The structure of DNA is incredibly important to it’s function, and the discovery of this molecule, that is the basis of our life, has influenced the advancement of the human race because of it’s incredible structure and variability as well as its role in human side application. II. Body G. DNA is Deoxyribonucleic acid * It is also known as a polynucleotide * It is one of the 3 major macromolecules of life! * It is a complex molecule * It is a anti-parallel double helix – meaning its two opposite sides twirl around and form a parallel twisting molecule * Deoxyribose...
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...In 1962 James Watson along with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins were awarded a Noble Prize for the paper that they published about the discovery of the double-helix model of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. The discovery of the helical structure of DNA is considered as one of the most important achievements in the field of the science history. However, James Watson does not deserve the recognition of discovering the helical model of DNA. Watson should lose his nobel prize, not only did he not give any credit to the person who was really the one responsible in discovering the helical shape of DNA he is also making rude and prejudiced opinions. Few people know Rosalind Franklin, a scientist who devoted herself in the scientific study of the structure...
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...CHAPTER 9: NUCLEIC ACIDS 9.1 Levels of Structure in Nucleic Acids Primary (1o) Structure – order of bases in the polynucleotide sequence Secondary (2o) Structure – 3D conformation of backbone Tertiary (3o) Structure – supercoiling of the molecule Quaternary (4o) Structure – interaction between DNA & proteins Two principle types of nucleic acids - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - RNA (ribonucleic acid) How do DNA and RNA differ? Ribosomes: polypeptide-generating machinery of the cell Tobacco mosaic virus: nucleic acid strand winds through a cylinder of coat-protein subunits 9.2 The Covalent Structure of Polynucleotides Nucleotides: monomers of nucleic acids 1. Nitrogenous base 2. Sugar 3. Phosphoric acid residue Order of nucleic acids of DNA contains the information necessary to produce the correct amino acid sequence in the cell’s proteins What are the structures and components of the nucleotides? Nucleic acid bases (nucleobases): one or two-ring nitrogenous aromatic compound - Pyrimidines – single-ring aromatic compounds Cytosine – DNA & RNA Thymine – substitute for Uracil in DNA (sometimes in RNA) Uracil – RNA only - Purines – double-ring aromatic compounds Adenine – DNA & RNA Guanine – DNA & RNA Methylation can modify bases Nucleoside - base + sugar covalently bonded - lacks phosphate group - base forms a glycosidic linkage with sugar Ribonucleoside: β-D-ribose Deoxyribonucleoside: β-D-deoxyribose The glycosidic...
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...Nucleic Acids Competency 208.5.1 Melissa Kelleher, RN The Structure of DNA • DNA is composed of units called nucleoCdes, (Wolfe, 2000). • NucleoCdes are composed of a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base, (Wolfe, 2000). – Purines – nitrogenous bases that composed of two rings, (Wolfe, 2000). – Pyrimadines – nitrogenous bases composed of one ring, (Wolfe, 2000). The Structure of DNA • DNA is a double helix structure of nucleoCdes wound together in an anCparallel direcCon, (Wolfe, 2000). – Hydrogen bonds form between the nitrogenous bases, (Wolfe, 2000). – Base pairs only bond in specific pairs, (Wolfe, 2000). • Adenine bonds only with thymine, (Wolfe, 2000). • Guanine bonds only with cytosine, (Wolfe, 2000). • Deoxyribose sugars line up in one direcCon, considered the 51 to 31 direcCon, in one strand of DNA, and in the opposing direcCon, considered the 31 to 51 direcCon...
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...Class: Biology CP Teacher: Mr. Liska Date: 1-22-13 Standards: B-4.1 Compare DNA and RNA in terms of structure, nucleotides, and base pairs. B-4.3 Explain how DNA functions as the code of life and the blueprint for proteins. B-4.4 Summarize the basic processes involved in protein synthesis (including transcription and translation). Essential Questions: What is genetic material composed of? What is the shape of the DNA molecule? How is information organized in a DNA molecule? What scientific investigations led to the discovery of DNA’s structure? How does DNA replicate, or make a copy of itself? What are the roles of protein in DNA replication? What is the process of gene expression? What is the role of RNA in gene expression? What happens during transcription? What are the major steps of translation? Learning Objectives: * Students will be able to synthesize the importance of DNA to life on earth. * After going through notes and activities on DNA properties, students will be able to analyze the 1components in the basic chemical structure and properties of DNA. * Students will be able to see visual components that DNA is contained in the order of bases, while the base-pairing structure allows information to be copied. * Given the structure of DNA, students will be able to investigate how the process of DNA replication occurs. * Students will evaluate how gene expression produces proteins by transcription and translation. * Given models...
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...DNA Worksheet REVISED Part1: Basic structure of DNA The nucleotide bases of a DNA consists of specific codes and particular strands of this codes are known as the genes. The genes codes for a particular protein which eventually be a specific trait. The pairing of the base in a DNA molecule is very specific. Adenine usually pairs with Thymine while Guanine normally pairs with Cytosine. A segment of a gene from DNA usually gives the necessary directions to build a RNA molecule and eventually translated into a protein (Simon, Reece and Dickey, 2010). Reason why DNA is referred to as a protein recipe DNA is referred to as a protein recipe because its molecules are made up of amino acid proteins which are in form of a long strand. The DNA structure is composed of codons. Basically, the DNA codes for RNA codon or a transcription which is used to form proteins which is the translation of the codon. Each group of tri-codons are then read by the ribosomes where for each group of 3 such codons, there is an amino acid. These amino acids are then bound together to make a protein chain. The complexity of a protein depends on the number and type of chains (Simon, Reece and Dickey, 2010). Part 2: Differences between DNA and RNA DNA is used for long-term storage of genetic information, transmission of genetic information so as to make other cells and new organisms and to transfer the genetic code to the ribosomes from the nucleus to manufacture proteins. On the other hand, RNA is used...
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...of 7-Methylguanine on the DNA and the Related Processes | Mutation & Disease | | | | | Abstract Alkylation is the additon of an alkyl group and it usually follows the structural formula of (CnHn+1). Therefore methylation which is the addition of a CH3 comes to highlight the simplest form of the alkylation process at which there is only 1-Carbon. The effect of methylation and alkylation in general is studied most precisely on the nucleic bases of the DNA double helix. The methyl group attaches to the 7-position of the purine ring; guanine resulting in structural and chemical changes within the base as well as the whole of he DNA. This consequcntly has a range of implication on the function of the DNA and the processes that are kean to occur for development. The damage of the 7-Methylguanine is studied specifically through numerous research projects that aim to link this damage to other mutations. Until now scientists and researchers were able to identify age and cancer as prime mutations of this damage, and the field is working for developing and enhancing a proper theory that would explain the repair mechanism invloving the specific proteins. Methylation has harmful effects and its fatal jeapordy on the rick of humans has become inevitable. 7-Methylgunine maybe of little threat due to the minor and insignificant effect it has, but it studies have showed that this damage is capable of developing more harmful structures, which pose a risk given the...
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