...Robert Collins’ A History of Modern Sudan divulges into the past of Sudan beginning with the first invasion of the Turks in 1820. Collins argues that the colonization of Sudan failed throughout the years due to a variety of factors, which include colonizer’s inability to create a unified government and structure, constant chaos between controlling powers, intolerance of the native Sudanese beliefs and the vast geography of land that differed greatly in climate and landscape. Throughout the book, as Collins takes on the task chronicling the Sudan history to provide an understanding of how Sudan evolved into its most modern state, the theme of government instability proves to be most prevalent. It is crucial to understand the concept of continual...
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...TABLE OF CONTENTS AFRICA NAZARENE UNIVERSITY i SOUTH SUDAN CONFLICT AND PEACE BUILDING STRATEGIES 4 Introduction 4 Causes of the conflict 5 Challenges to peace 5 Who should be held accountable for peace? 6 Measures to restore peace 7 Conclusion 10 REFERENCE 11 SOUTH SUDAN CONFLICT AND PEACE BUILDING STRATEGIES Introduction Daniel (2013) in his research on the state fallen apart, he states that, the first civil war, from 1955 to 1972, was between the Sudanese government and southern rebels who demanded greater autonomy for southern Sudan. The war ended with the 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement, which granted significant regional autonomy to southern Sudan on internal issues. After decades of brutal civil war that left two and a half million dead, the devastated and vastly underdeveloped southern part of Sudan secured independence in 2011. Since independence, South Sudan has been handicapped by the competing interests of powerful political actors and the factions and interests they represent. Annah (2013) states that in early July 2013, along with three other friends of South Sudan, Enough’s Founding Director wrote to South Sudan’s President Salva Kiir, warning that stated that, after almost nine years of self-rule, the government is still failing to meet the basic needs of its people. Despite claims that vast sums have been expended on investment in infrastructure, there is very little to show in the way of roads, medical services, and education for millions of South Sudanese...
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...Failed and weak states are posing greater security threats to the world than it were ever imagined. The collapse of autonomy and sovereignty among states is therefore a susceptible situation in the modern world. Developed states like the United States and other notable security sensitive nations are focusing their security efforts towards the failed states. This is mainly because these weak states have become breeding sites for criminal activities, and terrorist groups have established strong bases in such countries. The challenges posed by these failed states on security issues are far-reaching, and reliable measures have to be taken in order to safeguard the safety of the global population. Many forms of transnational security threats have emerged, and international peace has persistently been compromised by this trend. Solomon Islands, Somalia, Afghanistan and Sudan are good examples of failed countries that have contributed in several ways to transnational insecurity (Wyler, 2010). This essay explores the issue of transnational security threats from failed states. In detail, this paper illustrates the specific security challenges that failed states have posed on the traditional security concerns in the world. While the failure of states is attributed to struggles for political liberalism, the lack of sovereignty and autonomy are the major factors contributing to collapse in some states (Bar-Joseph. 2001). Fragile or failed states are defined as nations which face extreme...
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...DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS It has been known that the most of the period since independence in 1956 is military-dominated. This is because more than three-fourths of the total independence period, around 35 out of 45 years was under the domination of three military rulers, which are the Abboud regime (1958-1964), the Nimeiri regime (1969-1985) and the Bashir regime (1989). Based on overall performance measured by macro-economic fundamentals, namely, growth rate, savings and investment rates, balance of payments, foreign exchange reserves, inflation and unemployment, the decade of 1980s seems to be the worst. While the performance during the initial two decades after independence in the mid-1950s to the mid 1970s was not as worse as the 1980s, and the decade of the 1990s started showing signs of improvements, in general. With this in mind, we will now analyze how this macro-performance being measured in the most pragmatic sense of fulfilling both social rights (health and education) and economic rights (real purchasing power) has implications for achieving economic democracy proxied by socio-economic rights (SER) and political democracy proxied by civil-political rights (CPR). Socio-economic rights (SER) determines the rights of any individual to basic needs together with the access to minimum level of health, education, shelter and basic public utilities, while civil-political rights (CPR) includes the rights to live in a civil society concomitant with the rights to exercise...
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...Unstable State of the Sudan Introduction Between the 1870s and 1900, Africa faced a process of European aggression, invasion, and eventual conquest and colonization. The European imperialist push to take over Africa was driven by the industrial revolution and the hopes of becoming a world power. After two world wars, countries that had previously been colonized agitated for independence, and eventually colonial powers withdrew their administrators from Africa. For each African state, becoming independent meant something far more than simply gaining back territory. For some, it was the beginning of a stable government, a local economy and a cultural comeback. For others such as the Sudan, it was the start of tragic consequences driven by political conflicts and civil wars. Through the process of decolonization that began, African leaders worked to shape the character of their postcolonial state, usually either against the continued European cultural and political predominance, while others worked with European powers in order to maintain an economically and politically stable state. As the success of each nation and region of Africa widely varied after their independence, their progress also varied. Unfortunately, some are still struggling to overcome these crucial instabilities preventing them from being at peace within their own state, and internationally. By examining Sudan and the decades leading up to its current political, social, and economic state, this paper...
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...benefit from these investments by earning millions of dollars. Seen from the outside, The Chinese seems is making a significant effort of making a win-win situation between China and Africa. In fact, China is often dealing its investment with the rouge governments and even, dictators. Example has been given in the book The Beijing Consensus. “Beijing has maintained strong economic relations with Khartoum since 2002, focusing on Sudan’s considerable natural resources.”1 A year later the genocide broke out between the Khartoum’s government and the Darfur region in Sudan. The conflict killed over two hundred thousand Darfurians and millions were displaced. The UN Security Council failed on intervene the violence because China’s diplomatic protection of Sudan. Interestingly, China did all these publically. China today is not afraid of public opinions any more, it shows more initiative in international affairs. From the Sudan incident, China has been labeled as a hot potato in terms of the foreign policy which China practices. A major issue with the Chinese influence is human rights problem. In chapter three of the book, figure 3.1 shows that reported human rights abuses relate to China is extremely...
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...The instances of genocide in the late 20th century stand as a testament to how unreliable the nation state can be when inalienable and human rights are concerned. As is shown in the case of Rwanda, non-state actors have taken steps to trample on these rights even when the victim technically has citizenship in a country. Additionally, the nation-state can reinforce the actions of the non-state actors through either sponsorship, or even inaction in the face of genocide. Civil society actors have taken steps to act where the nation-state has failed to do so out of what Ayers identifies as labeling the conflict as internal or a civil war. Ultimately, both Ayers and Power agree that labeling genocide as what it is, and taking other steps outside of raw military force can go a long way in preventing the atrocities of the 20th century. More specifically, since the nation-state alone cannot be trusted to handle these situations, civil society must take steps to better the diplomacy of the nation-state, along with creating an international community that can work together to remedy the problems of human and inalienable rights violations. In her article “Raising the Cost of Genocide,” Samantha Power examines the historical response to genocide by discussing the ways in which western powers have avoided responsibility for 20th century atrocities. She begins her article by explaining the invention of the word genocide as a word meant to “send shudders down the spines of those who heard it...
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...implementation plan, procurement plan. After completing the above elements we will identify the stakeholders and organize and control the expected risks. Executive Summary ESL is the CONNECTION goal is to provide 30 ESL scholarships for the top ten students in the high school exam in Egypt, Libya, and Sudan at Calhoun Community College at Huntsville, Alabama (USA). The project derived by the decrease of the English skills in the Middle East region and the increase in demand for graduate with good command in English that led to increase in unemployment. Also, the students in the region are became lessen to compete in high ranked universities. The short-term benefits of the project that the candidate students will improve all their English skills specially speaking and listening due to the native English teachers, the high quality of ESL classes at Calhoun (Lucy, 2007). Also, students may have the chance to enjoy another scholarship in the U.S universities which is great push for students development and this will add positive value for overall development in Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. The long-term benefit is that project will build sustainable relationship between the West (United States and European Union) in the Middle East which will break the gap built by politics and media reducing the possible violation in the future. The most interested part in the project that the ESL classes at Calhoun College are free. Thus, the cost of the...
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...Conflict in South Sudan. South Sudan which is officially known as the ‘Republic of South Sudan’ is a landlocked country in eastern Africa with plains in the north and centre and highlands in the south, along the border with Uganda and Kenya. The White Nile, which flows north through the country is its major geographic feature and it supports agriculture as well as large wild animal populations. South Sudan is bordered by Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, and Uganda. The recent conflict in South Sudan after its independence has sparked up a lot of interest recently in the media. South Sudan came into being because of the struggle of its people and the commitment of international community to the peace agreement with Sudan. Already, the world’s newest country seems to be a failed state before it was born on July 9, 2011, despite its enormous natural resources and the determination of its people. This research therefore seeks to bring to the fore: the formation of South Sudan (history), reasons for its current conflict, as well as UN and AU interventions in the region. History As indicated above, it was actually part of Sudan until its independence. The Egyptians conquered it (Sudan) in 1874 and established the province of Equatoria. In 1885 however, the Islamic Mahdist revolutionaries entered the territory. Fortunately, the British troops who happened to be there helped defeat the invaders and thus took over Sudan in 1898. Britain...
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...Sudan and South Sudan’s Merging Conflicts Africa Report N°223 | 29 January 2015 International Crisis Group Headquarters Avenue Louise 149 1050 Brussels, Belgium Tel: +32 2 502 90 38 Fax: +32 2 502 50 38 brussels@crisisgroup.org Table of Contents Executive Summary................................................................................................................... i Recommendations..................................................................................................................... iii I. II. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... South Kordofan – the Epicentre of Sudan’s Conflicts ..................................................... A. The Government’s “Hot Dry Season” Campaign ....................................................... B. The Sudan Revolutionary Front ................................................................................ III. Internal Nuer Conflict in Unity State ............................................................................... A. Historic Disunity ........................................................................................................ B. Bul Nuer Rising .......................................................................................................... 1 2 2 4 7 7 8 IV. Merging Conflicts in Sudan and South Sudan ......................................................
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...Ethnic conflict: Ethnicity; defining principle of identity often determined by shared language, culture, religion * Desire to reassure and protect one’s own ethnic identity results in ethnic conflict within state boundaries * Ethnic cleansing; forcible removal of a group of people by another by violence and deportation ---- Genocide is an extreme form of ethnic cleansing Bosnian Genocide * The socialist federal republic of Yugoslavia was held together by the communist leadership of joseph bronz -1981, individual states began to secede along ethnic lines - Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991 - Macedonia and bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992 - Montenegro entered into federation with Serbia - Serbian nationals responded to Bosnian independence with attacks - The Bosnian war resulted in 100,000 dead and massive crimes to humanity - Ethnic cleansing of muslim pop. Especially in eastern bosnia - mass rape of 20,000-50,000 women. Modern ethnic conflicts often arise from colonial experience * artificial state boundaries grouping ethnic communities together * legacy of brutality Democratic republic of Congo * vey mineral rich lands * controlled by king leopold II of Belgium * slavery and violence The DRC relied on Hutu and Tutsi laborers from Rwanda * Tutsi’s were favored by Belgians Rwanda * Rwandan Civil War between the hutu led gov. and Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) * 1994: Hutu ethnic...
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...During that period, around two million more were displaced from their homes and forced to seek refuge. The conflict is still ongoing. After the relative success of International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), a draft statute was adopted to establish an international criminal tribunal that had jurisdiction over crimes of war crimes, crimes against humanity, aggression, and genocide. The result was the Rome Statute, which was drafted in 1998 and that required the approval of 60 states in order to come into force, which it did on July, 1st 2002. Sudan signed the Rome Statue in September of 2000 while Omar al-Bashir was President, but did not ratify it, thus not accepting the jurisdiction of the Court. In addition, per Article 13, the Security Council has the power to refer cases to the Court that would traditionally be outside its jurisdiction, such as Sudan, in the spirit of Chapter VII of the United Nations charter. Of the seven situations that the ICC is now investigating; Uganda, the Ivory Coast, Darfur, Kenya, the Central African Republic, Libya and the...
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...to engage Africa in her Foreign Policy. This has heightened the Chinese desire to geo- strategic reach into Africa as a going global strategy this has been the plan as far back in the 1978 eras of Mao Zedong. China’s objective in the new phase of assertiveness is to maintain strong economic ties in Africa, unlike the previous objective of building a coalition of sharing common goals with Africa as ‘Third World’. This geo-economic factor is influenced by the desire for resources to fuel its economic growth and gain energy security. China in strengthening her diplomatic and political ties sees Africa not just as ally to bid for influence and power, but as a source for natural resources . China has established Confucius Institutes (state-funded Chinese Cultural Centers) that have sprung up throughout Africa, teaching local people the culture and traditions. One wonders if China is positioning itself for taking over supremacy and advancing her Soft Policy in Africa. It is perhaps important to see our languages and cultures going out there too. The China- Africa Cooperation which was aimed at strengthening China’s diplomatic and political ties stared in post colonial Africa. The African plight of political freedom from their colonies, referred to as aggressors according to the Chinese and their desire to have a say in the international arena has given the Chinese a reason to defend their being in Africa. The analysis of the Beijing Consensus verses the Washington Consensus...
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...Conflict and the Environment The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) military escort for UNEP fieldwork near El Geneina, Western Darfur. Intense competition over declining natural resources is one of the underlying causes of the ongoing conflict. SUDAN POST-CONFLICT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Conflict and the Environment 4.1 Introduction and assessment activities 2. an overview of the role of natural resources in the instigation and continuation of historical and current conflicts, listing the major resources of concern and focusing specifically on conflicts involving rangelands and rain-fed agricultural land; and 3. a brief environmental impact assessment of the various conflicts, evaluating the direct and indirect impacts of conflict on Sudan’s environment. Chronic environmental problems are covered in other chapters, though it should be noted that at the local level, the boundary between chronic and conflict-related environmental issues is often unclear. Assessment activities The assessment of conflict-related issues was an integral part of fieldwork throughout the country. In addition, UNEP carried out a number of specific activities, including: Introduction Sudan has been wracked by civil war and regional strife for most of the past fifty years, and at the time of finalizing this report, in June 2007, a major conflict rages on in Darfur. At the same time, Sudan suffers from a number of severe environmental problems, both within and outside current and historical conflict-affected...
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...Week 3: Dependency and Modernization Theory Key Concepts: Political decay/ failed state: Definition: A failed state is a state perceived as having failed at some of the basic conditions and responsibilities of a sovereign government. In order to make this definition more precise, the following attributes, proposed by the Fund for Peace, are often used to characterize a failed state: * loss of control of its territory, or of the monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force therein, * erosion of legitimate authority to make collective decisions, * an inability to provide public services, and * an inability to interact with other states as a full member of the international community. * Often a failed state is characterized by social, political, and/or economic failure. Common characteristics of a failing state include a central government so weak or ineffective that it has little practical control over much of its territory; non-provision of public services; widespread corruption and criminality; refugees and involuntary movement of populations; and sharp economic decline. The level of government control required to avoid being considered a failed state varies considerably amongst authorities. Furthermore, the declaration that a state has "failed" is generally controversial and, when made authoritatively, may carry significant geopolitical consequences. Example: Modernization theory Discussion Question:In what ways has the first world...
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