The Impact of Landscape Aesthetics on the Experience of Highway Users 2016

Contents
Chapter 1........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Background to the study .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Purpose of the Study.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.4 Study Objectives .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 Ultimate Objective .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Study Assumptions................................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.6 Study Significance .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.7 Study Justification .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.8 Study Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
1.8.1 Theoretical Scope............................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
1.8.2 Geographical scope ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.9 Study Limitations ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.10 Study Organization............................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Literature Review ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.2 Uses of Highways ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Classification of Highways .................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
2.4 Past studies ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
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2.5 Roadside Objects................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
2.6 Features immediately adjacent to the travel way ............................................................................................................................................. 26
Table 2 objects immediately adjacent t the travel way ........................................................................................................................................... 26
2.7 Common roadside elements .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.7.1 Curb ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.7.2 Shoulders .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.7.3 Medians....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.7.4 Roadside grading......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.7.5 Street furniture ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.7.6 Lighting and visibility................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.7.7 Signposts ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
2.7.8 Safety Barriers ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
2.7.9 End treatments ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.7.10 Pedestrian buffer ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.8 Criteria in placement of roadside elements ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.8.1 Proximity to intersections ........................................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.8.2 Proximity to driveways................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
2.8.3 Maintaining a clear vision space ................................................................................................................................................................. 35
2.8.4 Lateral offset placement of trees................................................................................................................................................................ 36
2.8.5 Longitudinal placement of trees ................................................................................................................................................................. 40
2.8.6 Median planting strategies ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
2.8.7 Strategic placement strategies for visual perception. ................................................................................................................................ 40
2.9 Landscaping........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
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2.10 Sun glare and aesthetics .................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
2.11 Paradigms of Landscape Aesthetics ................................................................................................................................................................. 43
2.22 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
2.23 Conceptual framework .................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
2.24 Research Questions ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
2.25 Hypothesis: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
2.25.1 Ho............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
2.25.2 Ha ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
3.2 Research Approach ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 49
3.3 Research Design ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
3.4 Research Setting ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
3.5 Research Methods ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 50
3.6 Data collection Techniques ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
3.7 Sampling............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 52
3.7.1 Target population........................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
3.7.2 Determination of the sample size ............................................................................................................................................................... 52
3.7.3 Non-probability Sampling ........................................................................................................................................................................... 53
3.7.4 Subjects of Observation .............................................................................................................................................................................. 53
3.8 Program for Data Collection .............................................................................................................................................................................. 54
3.8.1 Work Plan .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
3.9 Data Processing .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
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3.10 Data Analysis and Presentation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.11 Data Valuation ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
3.12 Data Editing ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.13 Data Coding ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
3.14 Data Presentation ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 56
3.15 Data Interpretation .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
3.16 Pre-tests ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
3.17 Pilot Study ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 57
3.18 Research Ethics ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Study Area .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
4.2 Historical development of Thika Superhighway ................................................................................................................................................ 60
Plate 16 a section of Thika Superhighway in Juja showing the rocky embankments. ................................................................................................. 63
4.3 Legal and Institutional frameworks ................................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.4 Legislation .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.4.1 Kenya Environmental Law........................................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.4.2 Kenya Road Policies .................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
4.4.3 Other legal frameworks .............................................................................................................................................................................. 67
4.5 Physiographic and natural conditions on Thika Superhighway ......................................................................................................................... 68
4.5.1 Topography and Drainage ........................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Juja lies at a general altitude of 1422m above sea level. Thika Superhighway traverses this town with changes in elevation of +/-10m. ............... 68
The highway has side drainage channels that collect surface run off water and direct it into closed drainage systems managed by the municipal council of Juja. The curbs have allowances to let surface run-off from the carriageway surface to flow into the side drainage channels. .............. 68
4.5.2 Climatic conditions ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
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Figure 2 A line graph showing the average monthly temperature of Juja. (graph, graph & table, 2016)................................................................... 70
4.5.3 Geology and soils ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Vegetation ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
4.5.4 Natural Hazards........................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Data Analysis and Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
5.2 Data Presentation .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 76
Thika Superhighway is used by both genders- male and female. 67.5% of the respondents were male whereas the female gender made up
37.5%............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 76
Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 82
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
6.2 Theoretical Implications..................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
6.3 Methodological Implications ............................................................................................................................................................................. 84
6.4 Practical Implications ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
6.5 General Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
6.6 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 85
6.7 Aesthetic Recommendations of Landscape Elements on Highways ................................................................................................................. 86
6.7.1 Walls:........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.7.2 Signage: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.7.3 Flyovers: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.7.4 Trees:........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 88
6.8 Areas for further research ................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
References ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Appendices................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 93
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Chapter 1
Introduction

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1.1 Background to the study
This study deals with the evaluation of customer satisfaction and service quality on Kenyan highways. The concept of customer satisfaction has attracted the interest of academics and practitioners for more than three decades. In this case, the users of the highways are the customers. The provision of infrastructure of which highway network plays an important role is essential in the enhancement of the nation’s competitiveness as well as promoting its economic growth. The development of automobiles has changed the function of a road from facility provider mainly for commerce to a public utility serving all mankind. The demands for a better transportation network are growing tremendously in order to support the impressive industrial and social development.
The road users in Kenya have become more educated, better informed, more internalized and as the economy of Kenya persists to grow, the demand for high quality services continues to expand. They need to not only have safe roads but to also have convenient corridors for travelling.
Construction of quality roads to fulfill the needs of the highway users is thus considered paramount in today’s world. This study is thus aimed at evaluating the effects of highway design on the experience and the perception of its users aimed at changing the way people travel by improving their traveling experience and making their every use of the highways worthwhile.

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1.2 Problem Statement
Highways are major transit facilities. There is a high degree of interaction with humans. More often than not, roadways are constructed with major emphasis on speed, safety and efficiency. The aspect of aesthetics is usually not given due consideration. The placement of elements that constitute landscape aesthetics along highways is usually done unsystematically without the observation of credible and reliable guidelines and policies which would consequently result into a roadway that is convenient and safe for use by all kinds of users. The creation of vistas and viewsheds along the highways is also an essential factor that is commonly overlooked in the design of highways hence compromising the experience of the users of these highways. There are many views to sceneries that are far and near the highways that could provide users with interesting views and allow them to explore the countryside as they travel or use the highway in other capacities such as vending, filming or walking.
In some cases, attempts to create aesthetically appealing highways have been made. Failure to put into consideration the needs and preferences of users of highways has however rendered these attempts unsuccessful. There is the need for designers of highways and stakeholders in the transport sector to realize that there is more to achieving acceptable and successful aesthetics than the mere placement of a variety of plants along the highways. There is the need for the involvement of professionals to serve as consultants and provide informed, reliable and up-to-date guidelines for the creation of highways with landscape aesthetics that meet the preferences of the users without disregarding the set highway design standards. Customer satisfaction is determined by defining customer perceptions of quality, expectations and preference. The preservation of natural beauty along the highways has also been given an emphasis. Highways, besides blending in with the natural, social and cultural environment, should also provide the users with pleasure and satisfaction. There is the need to balance aesthetic, community and environmental needs with traffic safety and function. They affect the aesthetics of the surrounding landscapes to a great extent.
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Plate 1 Thika Superhighway at the road-bridge in Juja depicting the deplorable conditions of the highway’s landscape aesthetics. (Source: author)

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Plate 2 Thika Superhighway has the potential to be developed into an aesthetically-appealing road but this opportunity has not been fully exploited. (Source: author)

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Plate 3 Users of Thika Superhighway are exposed to the effect of sun glare. (Source: author)

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1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of landscape aesthetics on the experience of users of Thika Superhighway.

1.4 Study Objectives
1.4.1 Ultimate Objective
•

To establish the impact of landscape aesthetics on the experience of users of Thika Superhighway.

1.4.2 Specific objectives
1. To establish the current state of landscape aesthetics on Thika superhighway.
2. To investigate the various elements that make up landscape aesthetics on Thika superhighway.
3. To come up with guidelines for realizing landscape aesthetics in the design of superhighways.

1.5 Study Assumptions
•

The landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway are in a deplorable state.

•

The landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway have no impact on the experience of the highway users.

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1.6 Study Significance
Kenya Vision 2030 is a long-term development blueprint for Kenya. Nairobi Metro 2030 blueprint aims at increasing the number of transportation networks. Application of high quality landscape aesthetics on our highways would have a huge impact on their design in
Kenya. Minimal research has been carried out on landscape aesthetics of highways hence there is limited information available to guide stakeholders in the creation of captivating landscape aesthetics on highways. This study will form a foundation upon which future highway developments will be based. It will provide guidelines that should be observed in order to attain highways that are visually appealing. It is bound to establish the landscape elements that capture the eyes of the highway users and determine the best way in which they can be applied to achieve aesthetically-appealing highways. The study will also open doors for further research by discovering and recommending new fields of knowledge.

1.7 Study Justification
As the economy of Kenya continues to grow, the need for greater interconnection between places is also expanding. This is expected to lead to the need for creation of expansive road networks to accommodate the rising need for people to move and/or transport goods from one point to another, in a faster and more convenient way. Consequently, this will lead to the establishment of more highways in the country. It will be important to put into consideration the fact that landscape aesthetics on highways have a considerable effect on their users. The study is expected to come up with guidelines for the attainment of highways with landscape aesthetics that impact positively on their users. Highways that will be established henceforth will need to adhere to the recommended guidelines.
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1.8 Study Scope
1.8.1 Theoretical Scope
This study was based on the aesthetic theories, particularly Plato’s theory of aesthetics. Plato states that beauty is a form or an idea. The theory states that these forms are perfect ideals and they are more real than any physical object and that they are rational and unchanging.
The theory uses the word beautiful to refer primarily to the physical beauty of the world. The study was concerned with landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway and the way users experience them. The study sought to establish landscape elements that influence the visual appearance of a highway. It covered aspects such as the creation of views along highways, the placement, arrangement and orientation of spaces along the highways, the presence or absence of plants and their significance along the highways. The study also investigated the experience of highway users along Thika super highway on its landscape aesthetics. The study thus targeted all users of the superhighway who include drivers, passengers as well as pedestrians t determine whether or not they considered Thika Superhighway beautiful. 1.8.2 Geographical scope
The study focused on the section of Thika superhighway between Juja and the weighbridge at Kimbo.
This area was reasonably selected as it lies next to ‘significant’ neighbourhoods which include Juja Town, a golf course near the weighbridge and the weighbridge which greatly checks the speed of vehicles travelling along the highway. This provided an opportunity for the researcher to study the aspect of landscape aesthetics in an urban and a rural setting. Juja was studied as a rural setting whereas the area between Kenyatta Road and the weighbridge was regarded as a rural area. Since the traffic snarl-ups at the weighbridge significantly
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The Impact of Landscape Aesthetics on the Experience of Highway Users 2016 check the speed of traveling vehicles hence provided the researcher with the opportunity to investigate how people experience landscape aesthetics at different speeds. The golf course being a recreational facility does have views to Thika Superhighway hence the researcher needed to investigate means by which excellent views would be created to and from the recreational facility which in this case happened to be a golf course.

Map 1 A Google Earth map showing a stretch of Thika Superhighway between Juja and the weighbridge. (Source: Google Earth Satellite Images)

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1.9 Study Limitations
•

The study was hindered by factors such as lack of sufficient data regarding the design of Thika Superhighway as linking with the
Chinese contractors and other stakeholders proved to be a tall order.

•

Lack of cooperation from respondents to questionnaires as some were in states of urgency and were not willing to spare time for interviewing. This hindered the researcher from obtaining crucial and relevant information.

•

The potential risk of an accident which would be injurious to the researcher since Thika Superhighway is a high-speed transit corridor hence hindering the efficient collection of data.

1.10 Study Organization
Chapter 1:
This chapter introduces the study topic and gives a general overview of the entire research thesis. It consists of:
•

Background to the study which brings into perspective the essence of the research,

•

Problem statement which identifies a major problem which the research study seeks to address and solve.

•

Study objectives

•

Purpose of the study

•

Study assumptions

•

Study justification and

•

Significance of the study.
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Chapter 2:
This chapter contains the relevant and critical literature available on highway landscape aesthetics and the perception users have on the same. Chapter 3:
The research methodology employed in the research study is addressed under this chapter. The chapter entails the description of how the various research methods will be applied to come up with comprehensive and accurate data. The subtopics under this chapter include: o Sampling design

o

Data collection methods

o

Data analysis methods

o

Research ethics

o

Data collection tools

o

Instruments and

o

Data presentation methods

Chapter 4:

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This chapter contains a summary of the research findings and conclusions drawn therefrom. Additionally, recommendations will also be given under this chapter.
Chapter 5:
This chapter consists of the research time schedule, an estimation of the research budget and sample questionnaires.

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Chapter 2
Literature Review

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2.1 Introduction
Highways are major transit corridors. They promote access to various places. Road infrastructure is a key driver to the development of a country as it serves as a link to buyers and goods, links workers to their places of work and facilitates the transfer of goods and services from one location to another. The Kenya Vision 2030 aspires to firmly interconnect the entire country through networks of roads, railways, ports, airports, waterways and telecommunications.
Road transport is the major form of transport in Kenya. It carries about 93% of all cargo and passenger traffic in the country.
Kenya’s road network covers an approximate distance of 160886 km. These roads are managed by the Ministry of Transport and
Infrastructure in cooperation with Kenya National Highways Authority (KenHa) and Kenya Urban Roads Authority (KURA).

2.2 Uses of Highways
National highways function as multi-modal travel routes for commuters, commercial vehicles and recreational traffic such as tourists and bikers. The use of highways may also be classified as being short term and long term. Short term use includes parades and protests, cycling races and filming of movies and music videos. Long term special uses include shoulder driving sections for slower vehicles or school bus stops and pedestrian crossings. Highways also serve as spaces along which major public utilities such as electricity, water and sewerage are transmitted along. They also serve to accommodate advertisement billboards which are used to convey messages to the public. 21
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2.3 Classification of Highways
A road classification system has several interrelated grades which include:
•

Planning: the application of a road classification provides a framework for policy formulation in road administration and management.
This helps the planners to allocate resources for maintenance and the development of the road network between different groups of roads.

•

Design: Classification of roads enables the designers to determine the appropriate standards required for various roads.

•

Administration: It clarifies responsibilities amongst road administrations and the assignment of road sub-networks.

•

Usage: road classification helps users in determining the kind of roads to use for various transportation purposes e.g. movement of heavy machinery requires wide roads.

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The current road classification system is made up of six classes, A to E, and special purpose roads (SPR).
Table 1 Highway classification system
CLASS

DESCRIPTION

FUNCTION

A

International Trunk Roads

Linking centres of international importance or leading to international airports or ports.

B

National Trunk Road

Linking nationally-important centres.

C

Primary Roads

Link provincially-important centres to each other

D

Secondary Roads

Link local centres to each other

E

Minor Roads

Link to minor centres.

SPR

G

Government roads

L

Settlement roads

R

Rural access roads

S

Sugar roads

T

Tea roads

W

Wheat roads

Unclassified

All other public roads and streets

U

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2.4 Past studies
There has been a considerable degree of study on landscape aesthetics on transit corridors in rural environments. However, this knowledge is not applicable to the urban environment due to the restricted right-of-way with greater demand for functional use of the space adjacent to roads, making the maintenance of a wide clear zone quite difficult. (NCHRP Report 612).
There are many challenges encountered in the process of designing highways, especially those that pass through urban or inhabited areas. Arterial and collector highways are normally designed to move vehicles as quickly and efficiently as possible. However, these highways serve as centres for communities that live around them. Increasingly, citizens of these communities have requested for the redesigning and improvement of these highways through the application of roadside treatments like the introduction of trees, sculptures and signs. (NCHRP Report 612: Safe and
Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside Treatments, 2008). These are aimed at enhancing the appearance of these roads.These treatments, besides enhancing the appearance of the highways, also improve the safety of the highway users since they also help to slow down traffic. However, many of these treatments are considered to be fixed objects as defined in the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide, since they are usually located within the design clear zone. There are recommended clear zone dimensions that represent lateral offset distances. Introduction of fixed objects would however reduce the existing clear zones which would consequently reduce the recovery distance. Slowing traffic would also affect traffic operations. The impact of these designs needs to be understood clearly so that decisions can be based on facts. It is also critical to identify designs that have performed acceptably for deduction of lessons. The enhancement of roadside environment needs to be designed in such a way that it is forgiving to errant vehicles. The roadside should be designed to minimize the consequences of a run-off road event.
The recommendations provide guidelines for the placement of roadside elements with respect to driveways, intersections and merge lanes.

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Two approaches were employed in the research. The first one involved carrying out a corridor assessment of roadside conditions and contrasting it with 6 years of historic crash data. The aim of this assessment was to identify the configurations that posed greater risks using cluster risk analysis.
Assessment of locations with similar features but without these crashes provided insight into prospective alternative treatments for roadside safety in urban environments.
The second research involved a collection of case studies in which roadside enhancement or ‘beautification’ projects without companion major road reconstruction. A comprehensive, simplified before-after crash analysis, crash summaries and project descriptive information were assembled to help determine the safety influence of the enhancement projects. The results of this study can be applied by agencies in the estimation of potential safety implications of their future roadside enhancement projects.

2.5 Roadside Objects
It is advisable to avoid the placement of potentially dangerous objects adjacent next to the travel-way. It is recommended to have a clear zone in place. The clear zone should allow at least 80% of errant vehicles to stop or return to their travel lane. The appropriate width of clear zones is determined by the slope of the roadside, daily traffic volumes and speed. The width of the existing right of way however restricts the provision of sufficient clear zones in urban areas. The design also needs to include a buffer zone to allow or encourage pedestrian activity and to enhance the aesthetic quality of the roadway. This often involves introduction of mature trees in close proximity to the road which poses a potential risk to motorists and can cause serious fixed object crash, especially at high speed.

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2.6 Features immediately adjacent to the travel way
Table 2 objects immediately adjacent t the travel way
Features immediately adjacent to the travel way
Curbs
Shoulders
Channelization
Medians
Roadside grading
Static roadside objects
Mailboxes
Landscaping trees and shrubs
Street furniture

Utility poles, luminaires and sign posts Safety barriers
Barriers and guardrails
Bridge railings
Crash cushions and end terminals

Dynamic roadside Features
Bicycle facilities
Parking
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Sidewalks and pedestrian walkways

2.7 Common roadside elements
2.7.1 Curb
Curbs are used to direct storm drainage which helps to reduce the need for roadside ditches and wider right of ways. They also provide visual channelization to help delineate the pavement edge. Vertical curbs are used to prevent or discourage drivers from leaving the travel way whereas the sloping curb is usually located on high speed roadways or at places where vehicles may need to leave the road for emergency purposes. It allows the vehicle to traverse without inflicting any damages on the vehicle.

Plate 4 a vertical and a curved curb. (Source: author)

Curbs should not be located along highway arterials such as freeways and if present should be curved and placed not closer to the travel way than the outer edge of the shoulder. (The Green Book)
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2.7.2 Shoulders
These could be graded or paved. Shoulders provide a smooth transition from the travel way to the adjacent roadside while facilitating drainage and pother shoulder functions. Even shoulders without obstacles are recommended to allow drivers of errant vehicles to regain control and resume normal travel. According to research, wide shoulders may tempt a driver to stop voluntarily creating an obstacle adjacent to the travel way. They may also tempt drivers to use them as additional lanes. They may also encourage higher operating speeds.

2.7.3 Medians
Medians could be traversable or raised. They can be planted with landscaping treatments which enhance the visual environment besides being used for pedestrian refuge and for the placement of traffic control devices. A raised median should cover an area of at least 5m2 to enhance its detectability by motorists. The curb of a raised median should be slightly skewed to the adjacent travel lane to give an illusion of directing vehicles into the travel lane. The use of a median can dramatically improve the visual quality of a facility. (When Main street is a State Highway: Blending
Function, Beauty and Identity).
A research carried by California Polytechnic State University shows that the presence of large trees on the medians increased the occurrence of fatal or injurious crashes.
It is usually advisable to place brittle elements on the median as well as provide shields for the rigid elements.

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2.7.4 Roadside grading
The terrain adjacent to the road should be relatively flat and traversable. This is usually enhanced by the placement of walkways and utilities on the roadside. Flat terrain reduces the chances of errant vehicles rolling over. The side slope of an urban road should slope from the edge of the right of way toward the curb of the road to prevent storm water on the road from flowing into the adjacent property as well as to enable the water to be contained in a closed drainage system.

2.7.5 Street furniture
The use of street furniture improves the aesthetic quality of a street or a highway corridor. Street furniture includes items placed adjacent to the road to enhance the land use or to improve transportation operations. These items include benches, public art, trash receptacles, phone booths, planters, fountains, kiosks, transit shelters and bicycle stands.
They should not be placed in the sight triangles of intersections or driveways. Most street furniture items are placed by property owners on the right of way hence are usually out of the designer’s control. Transit shelters protect transit riders from inclement weather conditions.

2.7.6 Lighting and visibility
The role of lighting in enhancement of aesthetical quality of any street is very important. Factors that influence their impact on the aesthetical quality of a street are their frequency and spacing, lighting colour and associated visibility.

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2.7.7 Signposts
Table 3 Signpost design strategies
•

Purpose
Treat individual high risk pole locations

•

Treat multiple poles in high risk locations

•
•
•
•

Strategy
Remove or relocate poles
Improve pole visibility
Combine utilities/signs onto shared poles
(reduce the number of poles)
Replace poles with building-mounted suspended lighting (where possible)

2.7.8 Safety Barriers
These include:
•

Safety barriers

•

Bridge railings

•

End treatments
Their main purpose is to shield vehicles from hazardous roadside conditions. They are highly visible elements and are in constant visual interaction with users of highways. Their selection needs to be critical. Factors such as the type of material used, their height above the ground and their general outline is of great significance. The placement of barriers on roads should consider factors such as their lateral offset, deflection distance, terrain effects, flare rate and length of need. Corner sight distance, pedestrian activity and bicycle activity

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The Impact of Landscape Aesthetics on the Experience of Highway Users 2016 should also be considered. The application of aesthetic treatments may be considered. These treatments perform the same general function as a guardrail- shielding hazardous environments- while enhancing the aesthetics of the roadway.

Plate 5 stone masonry walls, a concrete wall and timber guardrails. (Lothian, 2016)

Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside Treatments produced a report describing the various types of barriers and their aesthetical value and influence. These barriers include concrete barriers with textured and patterned surfaces, timber guardrails, precast concrete guardrails and stone masonry walls. The first image in the previous page shows the Vermont-approved stone masonry system recommended in areas where aesthetics are important.

2.7.9 End treatments
They are applied in cases where end of barriers cannot be flared or protected. Aesthetic enhancements to end treatments do not receive much attention so conventional treatments are usually applied. These treatments should not allow vehicles to penetrate, vault or roll upon.
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2.7.10 Pedestrian buffer
This refers to the physical distance separating the sidewalk and the vehicle travel way. It serves a variety of secondary purposes which include onstreet parking, transit stops, street lighting and planting areas. The Green Book supports their incorporation in highway designs as they also enhance the aesthetical quality of highways.

2.8 Criteria in placement of roadside elements
Placement of roadside elements usually follows a certain criterion based on the functionalpurposeor the stipulated speed limitsof adjacent roads.
The criterion focuses on landscaping factors such as:

2.8.1 Proximity to intersections
Maintenance of sight distance near intersections is vital. Placement of trees in the immediate vicinity of intersections is usually restricted.
Trees should be located at least 9m away from an intersection corner.

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Plate 6 Trees in Hazardous Locations. (Source: Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside)

2.8.2 Proximity to driveways
Placement of trees near driveways also affects sight distance. There is not a definite set distance for tree placement along driveways although it ranges between 1.5m to 4.6m in different places from the edge of the driveway to the tree. The policies however stipulate that drivers exiting the driveway should be able to see approaching traffic and pedestrians.

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Plate 7 A landscape at a roadway intersection showing the inhibition of driver’s vision by landscape elements. (Source: Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside)

For instance, the image above depicts a landscape which seems reasonable upon initial inspection. However, a critical analysis of the same landscape shows that the intersecting roadway has a horizontal curve. The placement of the landscaping elements close to the driveway inhibit the vision of an exiting driver hence preventing them from detecting approaching vehicles without edging into the active travel lane. The placement of the large ornamental rocks at the corner also adds an obstacle in the immediate vicinity of the roadway.

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2.8.3 Maintaining a clear vision space
Vertical spaces ranging from 0.6m to 2.1m above ground should be maintained to preserve lines of sight. The Highway Safety Design and
Operations Guide recommends that the vertical clear vision space be 1m to 3mto provide a clear line of vision for drivers in low sports cars and high trucks or buses. The clear vision space refers to the space above the shrubs and below the tree overhang. A low tree overhang can also create an obstacle for pedestrian access. The tree canopy encroaches into the vertical clear vision space.

Plate 8 Maintenance of lines of sight requires vertical space of 0.6m to 2.1m under the tree foliage (Source: NCHRP Report 612: Safe and
Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside)

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Landscape berms are used to screen adjacent parking from the roadway. The image on the next page shows a longitudinal landscape berm and the effect it has on horizontal sight distance. The berm height prevents the driver from seeing the other driveways. The berm is higher than a typical passenger car.

Plate 9 Landscape berms are used to screen adjacent parking from the roadway Source: NCHRP Report 612: Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban
Roadside

2.8.4 Lateral offset placement of trees
Planting strips positioned between the curb and the sidewalk should be at least 1.8m wide. Small trees may however be planted within
0.9mof the back of the curb or along the centre line of the planting strip on streets that permit speeds of 32km/h or those that allow onstreet parking.

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In an urban environment, trees with a diameters less than 100mm should be laterally positioned 1.2m for posted or design speeds of
56km/h or less, 2.4m for posted or design speeds of 64km/h to 72km/h and outside clear zone for speeds greater than 72km/h. For larger trees, the minimum lateral placement should be 2.4m from the curb or 1.2m from the outside shoulder in central business districts. A lateral offset of 4.2m is recommended for speeds of 72km/h. Large trees should be placed away from the clear zone limits for speeds greater than 72km/h. Landscape design should also put into consideration the size of the mature trees and shrubs and how they affect security, visibility and their maintenance costs. In case of permission of on-street parking, the landscape border needs to be wide enough to accommodate the planned landscaping and allow access to parked vehicles.
Plant layering is also recommendable.

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Plate 10 Plant layering along a highway. (Source: Source: NCHRP Report 612: Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside)

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Plate 11 the positioning of plant elements near a bend obstructing the driver’s line of sight. Landscaping features do not obstruct sight distance. (Source: NCHRP Report 612: Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside)

2.8.4.1 Plant layering
It involves the grouping of trees according to height as shown in the figure below. Plant layering has the following advantages:


It provides a wide clear zone for rigid objects



It permits the inclusion of large trees in the roadside design



It allows appropriate sight distance



It permits visually appealing plant compositions
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

It ensures that the lateral offset of landscaping features do not obstruct sight distance (as shown in the figure above.)

2.8.5 Longitudinal placement of trees
This helps in the development of tree canopies. The trees should be well-spaced to avoid conflicting obstacles. They should be spaced in such a way that mature trees canopies can grow to within 3m of each other. This leads to tree spacing of between 7.6m to 25.2m depending on the type of trees involved. Canopy trees should not be placed under service wires.
Other placement constraints require a tree to be placed 1.5m away from underground utility lines, a minimum space of 3.0m separating trees from power poles and a space of 6.1m separating trees from street lights or other existing trees.

2.8.6 Median planting strategies
Trees should be located a minimum lateral distance from the nearest travel way of 2.5m. However, tree spacing may vary depending on the tree type. Shrubs should have a maximum height of 0.8m and ground covers should be set back from the curb edge a minimum of
0.5m.

2.8.7 Strategic placement strategies for visual perception.
A report from Denmark suggests that traffic-related feature of roadside plantings could be due to the visual narrowing of the driver’s field of view which consequently causes speed reductions. This speed reduction hypothesis is contained in other literature but is yet to be empirically substantiated.
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2.9 Landscaping
There are several landscaping treatments that can be applied to enhance the aesthetical quality of the highway. These include the placement of shrubs, trees or the placement of elements such as landscape berms. This raises a safety issue as it affects sight distance and stopping sight distance for drivers and other motorists which in some cases results in an errant vehicle encountering the adjacent roadside landscaping elements. There are landscaping design guidelines, policies and street tree master plans that touch on a variety of factors such as the kinds of plants, their maintenance and their placement along the highways. It is critical to carry out a careful selection of trees due to the fact that trees vary from small, flexible species to large and rigid ones. Different trees also have different types of root systems. Trees with aggressive root systems can negatively impact on the hard surfaces such as the carriageway surface and other paving such as pedestrian walkways consequently causing heaving and cracking.
Table 4 Planting design strategies
Purpose
• Prevent large trees from growing in hazardous locations
•

Eliminate hazardous tree conditions

Strategy
• Restrict/refine planting guidelines regarding tree and landscaping placement
• Implement plant layering strategies
•
•
•
•

•

Minimize level of severity

•

Remove or shield isolated large trees
(diameter of 100mm or more)
Shield tree groups
Establish urban lateral offset guidelines for large trees
Delineate hazardous trees to improve visibility Reduce travel speed on adjacent road

Elements placed along the highway should also be traversable in case of errant vehicles.
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2.10 Sun glare and aesthetics
Thika Superhighway has a general east-west orientation. Consequently, people driving along the superhighway are bound to be affected by the glare of the sun as the sun is roughly aligned with the superhighway from sunrise till sunset. Motorists traveling eastbound, that is from Nairobi to
Thika, in the morning are usually affected by the morning glare whereas those traveling westbound in the evening are affected by the evening glare. The sun glare is most hazardous during the first 15 to 45 minutes of sunrise and sunset. (New Jersey 101.5, 2016).

Plate 12 the effect of sun glare on Thika Superhighway (Source: author)
Plate 13 effects of sun glare on highway in Arizona, USA (Source: New Jersey 101.5, 2016)

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The Cheltenham Borough County website contains provision of relief from sun glare as one of the benefits of presence of trees along transportation corridors.

2.11 Paradigms of Landscape Aesthetics
The assessment of landscape quality is a paradox. On one hand, planners and geographers treat the landscape as a feature that can be classified and mapped, just like soils, landforms or vegetation. They assume, for instance, that mountains and rivers have a high landscape quality, and evaluate the landscape accordingly. This way, the landscape quality can be categorized on a numerical scale and said to be high, medium or low. The landscape is assumed to have inherent landscape quality which is a physical trait that can be evaluated likeother physical features. This method of assessing landscape quality is said to be objective. It is not affected by personal preferences. The subjective basis of the criteria derived from these preferences is generally ignored.
The other method involves the use of psychophysical methods to examine community preferences for landscapes then applying a statistical analysis to derive the overall quality of the landscape. This is an objective approach that determines the community’s preferences without influence of the researcher’s personal bias or preference. Bias may however occur in the framing of questionnaires and in result evaluation.
The two approaches are not entirely correct. The first one assumes that landscape quality is inherent in the landscape whereas the second approach assumes that landscape quality lies in the eyes of the beholder.
The paradox is that in common usage, the landscape is taken to be beautiful but in actuality, this beauty is literally a figment of the imagination, a product of the viewer’s own cultural, social and psychological constitution. These are the objectivist and subjectivist paradigms. (Lothian, 2016)
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2.22 Theoretical Framework
This study is based on the aesthetic theories, particularly Plato’s theory of aesthetics. Plato states that beauty is a form or an idea which other philosophers called universal. The theory states that these forms are perfect ideals and they are more real than any physical object and that they are rational and unchanging. He called them “really real”. For the world physical appearance, the theory says that they are irrational and changeable and have reality to the extent of successfully imitating the forms.
The study takes a reverse approach of defining beauty from the concepts of visual analysis. These concepts are:

a. Visual Resources
These are the various elements of the landscape that contribute to the visual character of a place. They can either be manmade or natural; they include objects, vistas and viewsheds. Any visual assessment generally begins with an inventory of the visual resources of a particular site.

b.Visual Character
Visual character is described as the element of form, line, texture and colour of a visual resource, combined with that visual resource’s characteristics of dominance, scale, diversity and continuity.

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c. Visual Quality
• Vividness is the visual power or memorability of landscape components as they combine in visual pattern
• Intactness is the visual integrity of the natural and artificial landscape and its freedom from encroaching elements.
This factor can be present in urban and rural landscapes, as well as in natural settings
• Unity is the visual coherence and compositional harmony of the landscape considered as a whole. It frequently attests to the careful design of individual components in the artificial landscape.
Visual quality is evaluated based on the relative degree of vividness, intactness and unity apparent in a viewscape as modified by its visual sensitivity. High quality views are highly vivid and relatively intact while exhibiting a high degree of visual unity. The measure of the quality of a view must however be tempered with overall sensitivity of the viewer.

d.Viewer Response
This is the psychological reaction of a person to visible changes in the viewshed, and is based on the sensitivity and exposure of the viewer to that viewshed.
This research takes a deductive logic where the theory of beauty is used to develop hypothesis and the study used to test the hypothesis.

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2.23 Conceptual framework
Ideally, the design of highway corridors should major on the visual character, this is because most of the users use these spaces as they are in process of moving rather than as purposely to view or get in touch with the adjacent landscape. Manipulating the thoughts of the users by enhancing visual aesthetics of the transit corridors is an ideal concept of influencing the experience. This, through landscape can be achieved through the different design principals and the elements. Proper articulation of the highway using plantings, monuments, water features and landscape structures in harmony of balance, scale, rhythm, contrast and texture all together create a visual character distinct to felt and leave a living memory on the user. For highway corridors adjacent and leading to international airports, the same approach should be used but costumed to create a gateway effect and symbolize arrival and departure.
The visual experience is dependent on the interaction of the eye and the elements along the highway corridor. Concepts such as creating a landscape window, vistas and view shades can be integrated to achieve this. . Both motorist and pedestrians appreciate the landscape as they move but depending on the speed and the ability of the space to capture their attention. Their desire falls in the need to get exiting experience.

2.24 Research Questions
1. What is the current state of landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway?
2. What elements make up landscape aesthetics of Thika Superhighway?
3. What is the best way to achieve efficient landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway?

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2.25 Hypothesis:
2.25.1 Ho
Landscape aesthetics do not have an impact on the experience of users of Thika Superhighway

2.25.2 Ha
Landscape aesthetics have an impact on the experience of users of Thika Superhighway.

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Chapter 3
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
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3.1 Introduction
The research involved the collection of crucial data on Thika Superhighway with regard to its landscape aesthetics and the experience of the users of the highway.
Kothari, 1990, defines research methodology as a scientific and systematic search for crucial information on a particular topic towards solving a research problem.

3.2 Research Approach
The research was carried out in the form of a diagnostic study. A reconnaissance mission was carried out to find out more about the landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway and how they impact on the users of the superhighway.

3.3 Research Design
The research was carried out in the form of a case study. It involved delineating the boundaries of the site which extends from Thika
Superhighway at Highpoint in Juja to the weighbridge at Toll, a distance of 10 km. The researcher observed the elements that make up the subject which in this case is Thika Superhighway, the relationship between the various elements, the transition of the highway from one point to another and its contextual influence on the region in which it is located.

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3.4 Research Setting
The research was conducted in a natural setting. Thika Superhighway was not subjected to any manipulation for the purpose of the research. The researcher did not interfere with the environment or the subject in the course of the research.

3.5 Research Methods
The research methods employed included collection, processing and analyzing of data as well as methods to determine the accuracy of the results obtained. 3.6 Data collection Techniques
Both primary and secondary data on Thika Superhighway was collected. Sources of secondary data included books and journals with information on the design of superhighways, as well as those with information on landscape aesthetics and scenic views. Additionally, books and journals with information on user experiences were used in this research study.
This process involved archival methods for the collection of secondary data. It also involved observations, use of questionnaires administered by the researcher himself and interviews for the collection of primary data on Thika Superhighway.
Archival methods were useful in provision of the historical development of Thika Superhighway since its inception to-date. They also provided the researcher with an overview of changes that have taken place on Thika Superhighway, the reasons thereof as well as any planned future developments that may be documented.

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Carrying out observations entailed observing aspects of Thika Superhighway such as number of lanes, number of medians, types of soils and rocks, orientation of the highway in relation to the movement of the sun (important in handling the aspect of glare), physical elements or infrastructure such as barriers and signage on the superhighway, the number of users (both pedestrians and passengers), economic and sociocultural activities along the superhighway and the various types of neighbourhoods along the superhighway.
The researcher observed as a marginal participant. The researcher visited the site without necessarily participating in the activities that the users of
Thika Superhighway were engaged in.
Interviews were also employed in collection of data on Thika Superhighway. The researcher posed systematic questions to the users of Thika
Superhighway with the aim of finding out what they think, know, feel, believe and expect with regard to using the superhighway. The interviews were carried out on a personal, one-on-one basis. An interview guide was developed for the researcher to carry out a focused interview which enabled him to identify the major topics whose information was crucial for the research study. These topics included the experience of the various categories of users of the superhighway, expert views on the design of the superhighway with regard to its landscape aesthetics and any planned future developments on the superhighway by the stakeholders. (KeNHA et al).
Questionnaires were crucial in collection of primary data. These were mainly structured, close-ended questionnaires to facilitate the collection of specific information from the respondents.
As stated, it is advisable to conduct a pilot study for testing the questionnaire if the research is using this method. (Kothari, 2004).

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The research study also entailed collecting data from sources with no authority on the subject. These sources included newspapers, the internet, journals and magazines. These sources provided crucial information regarding the historical background of Thika Superhighway and the experience of users of the superhighway through videos in the internet as well as newspaper interview publications.

3.7 Sampling
3.7.1 Target population
The target population comprised of: o users of Thika Superhighway who included:
•
•

Cyclists

•

Drivers

•

Passengers

• o Pedestrians

Vendors

Stakeholders/designers of Thika Superhighway

Any sample of above 30 respondents is adequate for descriptive studies. (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999).

3.7.2 Determination of the sample size
The population sample size was determined by the application of the formula below: nf = n
(1+n)/N
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Where nf= the desired sample size (when the population is less than 10000) n= the desired sample size (when the population is more than 10000)
N= the estimate of the population size
Factors which were considered include:
•

number of variables in the study

•

type of research design

•

method of data analysis

•

size of the accessible population

3.7.3 Non-probability Sampling
The research employed convenient sampling which involved the selection of cases as they become available to the researcher. This implies that the researcher included in his sample the users of Thika Superhighway who were present at the time of his visit to the site.

3.7.4 Subjects of Observation
The subjects of observation included: o Users of Thika Superhighway
•

Drivers

•

Pedestrians
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•
•

Passengers

• o Cyclists

Vendors

Stakeholders/ designers of the road

3.8 Program for Data Collection
Observation entailed studying elements such as the number of users, the types of soils, infrastructure on the highway (footbridges, barriers, retaining walls and electricity lines), the orientation of the highway and the breadth of the highway.
Questionnaires and interviews to the users aimed to determine their opinion on the general experience of using Thika Superhighway as well as establishing any preferences, changes or improvements they would want on the superhighway.

3.8.1 Work Plan
Table 5 Work plan
WORK PLAN.
Month

Operations

Duration

Literature Review.

4

5

FEB
6
7

8

9

MAR
10 11

12

13

APR
14 15

12 weeks

Data collection &
Analysis.

1

JAN
2
3

16

5 weeks

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Study Area.

31/2 wks

Processing & Data
Analysis.

2 wks

3.9 Data Processing
After data has been collected on site, it needed to be processed. A case study design was applied in this research study, hence the data was analyzed qualitatively to give a thematic analysis.

3.10 Data Analysis and Presentation
The results of the data analysis process needed to be synthesized and converted into an interpretable form. It then needed to be coded using a system of numerical indices. Tabulation and statistical inferences were also crucial in analyzing the obtained data. This facilitated the process of computation.

3.11 Data Valuation
Data valuation was significant in ensuring the accuracy of the data, its quality, completeness and its relevance to the research study. This carried out in the field to verify and identify any shortcomings. Any shortcomings were corrected through repeating the process of data collection as well as making conclusions from the researcher’s memory.

3.12 Data Editing
This was done to ensure the consistency of the data with the facts gathered.
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3.13 Data Coding
The edited information was grouped into a variety of categories and assigned specific numerical and/or alphabetical codes for ease of analysis.
A code key was prepared to indicate the coding scheme applied.

3.14 Data Presentation
Pie Charts
These were used to compare related variables and non-variables under study.
Graphs
They were important in indicating the relationship between the variables and non-variables under study.
Tables
They facilitated the synthesis of data and its classification into various groups and sub-groups for easier interpretation in an indirect way. They were also used to portray relationships between variables.

3.15 Data Interpretation
Interpretation was done to give the findings of the study. The most preferred kind of landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway were considered to be the best for incorporation in its design. Inferences were given and areas of further research identified.

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3.16 Pre-tests
A pre-test to determine the validity of questionnaires and interview schedule and their effectiveness in collection of information was conducted. The questionnaires were administered to5 respondents on Thika Superhighway and the responses were deemed by the researcher to be reliable and relevant to the research study.

3.17 Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted to determine whether the research process employed would be convenient in investigating the impact of landscape aesthetics on the experience of users of Thika Superhighway. The aim of the researcher was to reduce the likelihood of making type
I or type II errors with regard to the null hypothesis of the research study which stated that landscape aesthetics do not have an impact on the experience of users of Thika superhighway.
The researcher tested the possibility of the design in reality by testing whether there was ample time, finances and materials to carry out a successful research study on the aspect of landscape aesthetics along Thika Superhighway and whether they had an impact on the users of the superhighway. The researcher identified the variables which would be of interest in the research study. These variables were experience of the users and the aesthetic quality of the landscape elements on Thika superhighway. The researcher also determined how to operationalize these variables whereby user experience was rated as satisfactory, enjoyable, boring and indifferent. The aesthetical quality of various elements on

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Thika Superhighway was rated by the use ofa numerical scale ranging from 1 for the lowest quality to 5 for the highest quality. The efficacy of data collection instruments was also tested. These instruments comprised of a camera, a tape measure and sketching stationery.

3.18 Research Ethics
The researcher will strictly stick to the recommended ethical guidelines of research.

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Chapter 4
Study Area

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4.1 Introduction
This chapter aims at providing a precise description of Thika Superhighway. It contains information regarding the Superhighway in such aspects as its historical development, the legal and institutional frameworks, physiographic and natural conditions.

4.2 Historical development of Thika Superhighway
Thika Superhighway is a major road linking Nairobi with Thika Town. It is a standard eight-lane, controlled-access highway. It is classified as an A2 road. Its broader coverage includes linking the city of Nairobi to towns such as Moyale, Nyeri and Murang’a. It also connects Nairobi to the townships that lie along it. These townships include Kasarani, Juja, Githurai, Ruiru and Roysambu.
The construction of the superhighway began in January 2009. On the previous Thika highway, underpasses, flyovers and more lanes were introduced. 60
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Images showing sections of Thika Superhighway

Plate 14 the road that linked Nairobi and Thika in the early 1900s. This road would over the years be upgraded into Thika Road and eventually into Thika Superhighway. It was then just a rugged dirty highway. The hill behind shows Mt Kilimambogo, Thika. (source: (Gathenji, 2016).

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Plate 15 Thika Highway before it was upgraded into a superhighway. It was a 4-lane highway with a wide median separating the carriageways. Aesthetically, the highway had a bigger potential of being visually pleasing to its users due to availability of space for incorporation of treatments. (Source: Melodiek.com, 2016)

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Plate 16 a section of Thika Superhighway in Juja showing the rocky embankments.
(Source: author)

Plate 17 a section across Thika Superhighway showing a typical lay-out of various utilities on the highway(Source: author)
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Efforts have been put to enhance the aesthetical quality of the highway by introducing a variety of plants on the medians. Some of these plant species, however, have been negatively affected by the exposure to vehicle exhaust fumes and the hot temperatures caused by the black tarmac surface during the day.
Plate 18 a planted median on Thika Superhighway. (Source: author)

There is ample room for addition of aesthetic treatments along the superhighway which have not been put into optimum utilization.

Plate 19 a decent view along Thika Superhighway as a result of changes in elevations. (Source: author)
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4.3 Legal and Institutional frameworks
Thika Superhighway is managed by the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure in cooperation with Kenya National Highways Authority
(KeNHa). The Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure is entitled with the responsibility of providing efficient and reliable road network which consequently drives social and economic growth. Kenya’s National Environment Actin Plan process resulted in the formation of policies on
Environment and Development under Sessional Paper No. 6 of 1999. This policy presents brad categories f development issues that require a sustainable approach. Its main objectives are to ensure that environmental factors are considered in all development policies, programs and projects. It also ensures that independent EIA reports are prepared before the implementation of the various projects.

4.4 Legislation
4.4.1 Kenya Environmental Law
The Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) 1999 and its subsidiary legislation, the Environmental (Impact Assessment and
Audit) Regulations (2003), is the main piece of legislation governing environmental management in Kenya. It is a framework law for the coordinated management of the environment in Kenya. EMCA has provision of EIA studies. The main objective this Act is to provide for the establishment of an appropriate legal and institutional framework of the management of the environment in Kenya, including the establishment of a National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), which became operational in July 2002.The National Environment Management
Authority has the overall responsibility for approval of environmental assessment studies, enforcement and compliance as well as monitoring. The
Provincial and District Environment Officers represent NEMA at provincial and district levels, and are required to inspect and monitor all
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An environmental and social section has recently been set up within the Planning and Environment Department of KeNHA. This unit is responsible for overseeing management of environment and the preparation / implementation of environmental management plans for all highway projects in the country.

4.4.2 Kenya Road Policies
The objectives of Kenya Road Policies are based on the following criteria:

Integration: Ensuring that all roads decisions are taken in the context of a coherent, integrated transport policy covering all modes.

Accessibility: Making it easy to reach the places we wish to get to.

Safety: Making travel safer

Economy: Getting good value for money and supporting sustainable economic activity in appropriate locations.

Environmental impact: Both positive and negative, on both the built and the natural environments, and at the global, regional and local levels.
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4.4.3 Other legal frameworks
Public roads and Roads Act Cap 22 Laws of Kenya- This Act consolidate the law relating to traffic on all public roads. The Act also prohibits encroachment on and damage to roads including land reserved for roads.

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4.5 Physiographic and natural conditions on Thika Superhighway
4.5.1 Topography and Drainage
Juja lies at a general altitude of 1422m above sea level. Thika Superhighway traverses this town with changes in elevation of +/-10m.

The highway has side drainage channels that collect surface run off water and direct it into closed drainage systems managed by the municipal council of Juja. The curbs have allowances to let surface run-off from the carriageway surface to flow into the side drainage channels.

Plate 20 drainage channels on Thika Superhighway. (Source: author)

Plate 21 drainage channels on Thika Superhighway. (Source: author)

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Plate 22 Plate 23 show drainage channels that collect surface run-off at the side of the Thika Superhighway. (Source: author)

4.5.2 Climatic conditions
Juja’s climate is considered to be warm and temperate. It is classified as Csb in the Köppen-Geiger climate classification.

February is the warmest month in Juja, experiencing average temperatures of 29.3 °C. July is the coldest with temperatures of 11.4 °C. The area has no distinct temperature seasons with relatively constant temperatures throughout the year. There are drastic falls in temperatures at night. Juja has average monthly temperatures of 19.6 °C.(graph, graph & table, 2016)

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The month of February receives the most sunshine. Rainfall is highest in April and August is the month with the least precipitation.
Juja receives an average monthly precipitation of 799mm.(graph, graph & table, 2016)

Figure 1 A bar-line graph showing the average monthly precipitation f Juja. (graph, graph & table, 2016)

Figure 2 A line graph showing the average monthly temperature of Juja. (graph, graph & table, 2016).
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4.5.3 Geology and soils
The dominant soils in Juja are lixisols with a high clay content, low CEC and a high saturation of bases. (Chinci.com, 2016)

Vegetation
The area falls under a subtropical dry forest bio-zone. (Chinci.com, 2016).The landscape is covered with mosaic vegetation. The vegetation along
Thika Superhighway comprises of: o Shrubs
• Nerium oleander
• Agave species

o

Grasses
•

o

Penisetum setacium

scanty trees
•

Cassia spectabilis

•

Grevillea robusta (silky oak)

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Plate 24 Penisetum setacium (Source: author) Plate 25 Agave species (Source: author) Plate 26 Grevillea robusta (Source: author)

Plate 27 (Source: author)

Plate 28 Kikuyu grass (Source: author)
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4.5.4 Natural Hazards
The chances of Juja experiencing an earthquake are one in every forty years with scales of 5-6 Richter. The risk of flooding is very high standing a chance of 100% of occurring. Drought stands a chance of 40% whereas landsides, volcanic eruptions and cyclones have a 0% chance of occurring.
(Chinci.com, 2016).

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Chapter 5
Data Analysis and Discussion

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5.1 Introduction
This study presents the analysis and findings of the data collected from the field based on the objective of the study. The study examines the impact of the landscape aesthetics on the experience of highway users. It entails investigating the elements that users of Thika Superhighway like and think have a positive impression on them as they use the highway in various ways.
The research study was carried out along Thika Superhighway between the fly-over in Juja and the weighbridge at Toll. Data collection involved administration of questionnaires to various users of Thika Superhighway. These users included drivers, passengers, cyclists, pedestrians, vendors and nearby residents.
The research administered 35 questionnaires for this research study. 3 were not returned by the respondents. Data analysis was done on 32 questionnaires that were comprehensively filled by the respondents.

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5.2 Data Presentation

Gender composition

male female Figure 3 Gender composition

Thika Superhighway is used by both genders- male and female. 67.5% of the respondents were male whereas the female gender made up 37.5%.

Figure 4 times of use

Thika Superhighway is open for use throughout the day. 25% of the respondents use the superhighway during the day only whereas 9% use it at night only. 66% claimed to use the superhighway during both daytime and night time.

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User composition passengers driver cyclist pedestrian vendors The respondents consisted of different types of users. 22% was made up of passengers,15 % consisted of drivers, 12% was made up of cyclists; pedestrians made up 22% of the respondents, vendors constituted 11% of the respondents and nearby residents made up 9% f nearby residents.

nearby resident

Figure 5 User composition

Effect of elements on users obstructive disruptive exciting creates a sense of belonging 15% of the respondents claimed that the elements on
Thika Superhighway were obstructive in that they obscure their lines of sight whereas 6% claimed the elements were disruptive. 6% of the respondents claimed the elements are exciting whereas 34% claimed they created a sense of belonging. 37% claimed that the elements engraved a memorable experience after using the superhighway.

memorable experience Figure 6 effects of elements on users
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Element likeability
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

like do not like

Figure 7 Element likeability

Respondents were asked about the elements they liked or did not like on Thika Superhighway based on their visual appeal. The bar graph above shows the outcome of the research study.
Carriageway surface:
59% of the respondents claimed that they liked the appearance of the carriageway whereas 21% claimed to not like its appearance. Reasons given thereof included its dominance of the immediate landscape giving it the character of a hard surface.
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Barriers:
28% of the respondents claimed to like the barriers for their functional role of safety enhancement rather than for their aesthetic appeal.18% of the respondents claimed to not like the appearance of the barriers mainly due to the kind of material used to make them.
Planted median strips:
40% of the respondents claimed to like the planted median strips whereas 3% claimed to not like their visual appearance. Those who claimed to like the planted median strips claimed that the plants gave the users alternative element to look at as they used Thika Superhighway.
Non-planted median strips:
12% of the respondents claimed to like the non-planted median strips whereas 31% claimed to not like them. Those who claimed to like them claimed that they allowed views across both sides of the carriageway.
Grassed road shoulders:
50% of the respondents claimed to like the visual appearance of the grassed shoulders on Thika Superhighway. No one expressed their dislike towards the grassed road shoulders.
Street lights:
43% of the respondents claimed they liked the effect of the street lights at night as they enhanced the visual appearance of Thika superhighway.
6% of the respondents claimed they did not like the street lights mainly due to their location along Thika Superhighway and the effect this had on them as they used the superhighway during the day.
Retaining walls:
25% of the respondents claimed to like the retaining walls whereas 12% claimed to not like them. Those who liked them mainly owed their orientation to the graffiti and other forms of art on the walls whereas those who did not like them owed their choice to the monotonous design which does not evoke any feeling in the viewer.
Flyovers:
21% of the respondents claimed they did like the flyovers whereas 43%expressed their dislike towards them. They claimed the flyovers seemed monotonous and needed aesthetical enhancements to ‘catch the eyes’ of the users.
Signage:
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21% of the respondents claimed to like the visual appeal of the signage on Thika Superhighway whereas 57% claimed to not like the visual appeal that the signage has. Those who claimed to not like their visual appeal owed their choice to the positioning of the signage along the road as well as the design of the various signboards.

Does a beautiful road matter to you?

Yes
No
Do not care

Figure 8

Figure 9

72% of the respondents claimed that having a
‘beautiful transit corridor’ mattered to them, 22% claimed it did not matter to them and 6% claimed that they were indifferent to the issue of having a
‘beautiful transit corridor’.

37% of the respondents claimed that they were affected by the glare of the sun as they used Thika Superhighway whereas 63% claimed that they were not.

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37% of the respondents claimed to prefer using Thika superhighway under cloudy conditions when the effect of the sun glare was minimal.44% expressed their preference to using Thika Superhighway under sunny conditions whereas 19% claimed they had no preference to either of the conditions.

both conditions

Figure 10

when is the highway more beautiful? at night

43% of the respondents claimed the highway was more beautiful at night whereas 57% claimed it was more beautiful during the day.

day time

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Chapter 6
Conclusions and
Recommendations

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6.1 Introduction
This chapter contains conclusions deduced from the data analysis and the recommendations based on the findings of the research study. The chapter covers the theoretical, methodological and practical implications brought about by the findings of the research study with regard to the impact of landscape aesthetics on the users of highways.

6.2 Theoretical Implications
The study is based on Plato’s theory of aesthetics that states that beauty is a form and more real than any physical element. It states that beauty can be created through the use of the changeable physical elements to imitate the ideal forms. The study puts together the four constructs of visual analysis to create an imitation of beauty that is considered visually aesthetic. The study uses the theory just as it is to test its alternative hypothesis: landscape aesthetics have an impact on the experience of highway users.
It can be concluded that in deed landscape aesthetics have an impact on the experience of highway users. It is the main aspect that induces the ability of an individual to remember places and record their identity in their minds. The landscape elements that influence the visual quality of a highway create a long-lasting impression that has a significant impact on the experience of highway users.

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6.3 Methodological Implications
The research study proved that questionnaires, interviews and observation checklists are sufficient and effective data collection tools in determining the impact oflandscape aesthetics on the experience of highway users. However, there still isn’t an accurate way of determining the aesthetical quality of landscape elements. More research may need to be conducted to draft a means of determining the aesthetic quality of various elements. 6.4 Practical Implications
The conclusions of the research study would lead to changes, improvements and/or alterations in the design of highways especially with regard to landscape aesthetics which would consequently affect the way elements are placed along highways.

6.5 General Conclusions
•

Elements with a high aesthetical quality should be incorporated in the general design of highways.

•

Horizontal and vertical alignments are the primary controlling elements for highway design. The coordination of these two aspects with principles of aesthetics in the initial stages of highway design is recommended.

•

Colour, form and texture affect the experience of highway users and should be considered in the design of highways.

•

Signage facilities are critical elements on highways and should be placed in strategic positions.

•

Placement of elements along the highway should follow a strict set of regulations, guidelines and policies.

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6.6 Recommendations
•

Colour, form and texture should be considered in the design of highways. This is to be achieved through the selective and informed use of design materials.

•

Placement of signage should be consistent through-out the entire stretch of the highway and designated areas for signage placement along the highway should be allocated.

•

The landscape aesthetics should be harmonious along the highway. This is achievable through the consistent use of materials along the highway.

•

Placement of elements along the highway should follow a strict set of regulations, guidelines and policies.

•

Landscape Architects should be involved in the design of highways right from the conceptual stage.

•

A clear zone should be maintained close to the drive way, that is, potentially hazardous objects should not be placed next to the highway. 85
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Plate 29 A buffer zone should be included between the pedestrian walkway and the drive way. It greatly enhances the visual quality

of the highway. (Source: author)

6.7 Aesthetic Recommendations of Landscape Elements on Highways
Proper landscaping should be applied on highways as it is in other areas such as residential, commercial and educational areas.
The incorporation of the following elements should be applied as described below.
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6.7.1 Walls:
Walls should be clad with plant materials such as climbers to ensure they are inconspicuous to the users of the highway. A significant percentage of users expressed their dislike for the walls as they add on the already dominant hard surface along the highway.

6.7.2 Signage:
Signage should be placed in designated areas and should be incorporated on street lights where possible which would reduce the number of bollards and posts along the superhighway drastically.

6.7.3 Flyovers:
The aesthetical quality of flyovers should be enhanced by the use of additional treatments such as the addition of patterns on the railings as well as incorporating plant materials such as light climbers on the railings.

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6.7.4 Trees:

Plate 30 Application plant layering along the highway. (Source: author) Plate 31 Maintenance of a clear vision space for both safety and allowance of views for the users of the highway. (Source: author) 88
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Plate 32 Tree spacing depends on the tree type. (Source: author)

Plate 33 Stone masonry barrier recommendable.(Source: author)

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Plate 34 Combination of utilities such as lighting and signage to reduce the frequency of their occurrence along the highway. (Source: author)

6.8 Areas for further research
The impact of landscape elements on road safety.

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References
1. graph, C., graph, T., & table, C. (2016). Climate: Juja - Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table - Climate-Data.org. En.climatedata.org. Retrieved 1 March 2016, from http://en.climate-data.org/location/655505/
2. Chinci.com,. (2016). Explore Juja, Central, Kenya (populated place) Information, Weather, Photos, Videos, Animals, Nature, Wildlife,
Maps, Hazards - Chinci. Retrieved 1 March 2016, from http://www.chinci.com/travel/pax/q/195902/Juja/KE/Kenya/0/
3. Lothian, A. (2016). LANDSCAPE AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF AESTHETICS: IS LANDSCAPE QUALITY INHERENT IN THE
LANDSCAPE OR IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER? (1st ed.). Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 177 - 198.
4. New Jersey 101.5,. (2016). Sun Glare Can Be Deadly for Drivers. Retrieved 2 March 2016, from http://nj1015.com/sun-glare-can-bedeadly-for-drivers/
5. New Jersey 101.5,. (2016). Sun Glare Can Be Deadly for Drivers. Retrieved 2 March 2016, from http://nj1015.com/sun-glare-can-bedeadly-for-drivers/
6. Melodiek.com,. (2016). Retrieved 3 March 2016, from http://www.melodiek.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Highway-28-lookingsouth.jpg
7. NCHRP Report 612: Safe and Aesthetic Design of Urban Roadside Treatments. (2008) (1st ed.). WASHINGTON, D.C. Retrieved from http://nacto.org/docs/usdg/nchrp612_dixon.pdf 8. James, F.P., 2000. Reliability of Rating Visible Landscape Qualities. Landscape Journal.
9. Kaltenborn, B.P., Bjerke, T., 2002. Associations between Landscape Preferences and Place Attachment: A Study in Roros, Southern
Norway. Landscape Research, Vol. 27, and No: four,
10. Kamicaityte, J.V., Janusatis, R., 2004. Some Methodical Aspects of Landscape Visual Quality Preferences Analysis. Environmental research, engineering, and management.

11. Worpole, Ken (2003), last landscapes, the architecture of the cemetery in the west, London.
12. Kothari,R.C.(2004).research methodology :methods and techniques.Newyork:wiley Eastern ltd.
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13. Mehmet kivanc .visual quality assessment methods in landscape architecture studies.
14. Christian helmut wenzel Kant’s aesthetics overview and recent literature.
15. Shafer,E,Hamilton ,J,F&Schmidt (1969) natural landscape preference
16. Mugenda o research methods, Quantitative and Qualitative approaches,Nairobi,Acts press (1999).
17. Appleton.(1975).The experience of landscape .

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Appendices

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Questionnaire for Highway Users

Study title:the impact of landscape aesthetics on the perception of highway users: a case of Thika Superhighway.
Part A
1. Gender: Male

Female

2. Type of highway user? Passenger
Vendors

Driver

Cyclist

Pedestrian

Nearby resident

3. When do you normally use Thika Superhighway?
Day time

Night time

Both

4. How often do you use Thika Superhighway?
Daily Weekly Monthly

Once

a year
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Part B

5. What elements do you like along Thika Superhighway?
The carriageway surface
The barriers
The planted median strips
The non-planted median strips
The grassed road shoulders/verges
Streetlights
Retaining walls
Fly overs
Signage
6. What elements do you not like along Thika Superhighway?
The road surface
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The barriers
The planted median strips
The non-planted median strips
The grassed road shoulders/verges
Streetlights
Retaining walls
Fly overs
Signage

7. What is your experience as you use Thika Superhighway?
Satisfactory
Enjoyable
Boring
Indifferent

8. Is the aspect of making Thika Superhighway appear beautiful and appealing to the eye of significance to you?
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Yes
No
9. On a scale of 1-5, how would you rate the views along Thika Superhighway?
(1 for the poorest rating, 5 for the best rating)
1
2
3
4
5

10. How do these elements affect you as you use the Thika Superhighway?
They cause obstruction
They lower my concentration
They stimulate feelings
They create a sense of belonging

They create a long-lasting image in my memory
11. Does the sun glare affect you as you drive/walk/ride along Thika Superhighway?
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Yes
No

12. Do you prefer to use Thika Superhighway when it is sunny or when it cloudy?
Cloudy
Sunny

13. When does Thika Superhighway look more appealing?
Day time
Night time
Thank you for your feedback.

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Interview Schedule
Study title: the impact of landscape aesthetics on the experience of highway users: a case of Thika Superhighway.
1. Sex

Male

Female

2. Occupation/ role____________________________________________
3. What is your personal experience as you travel along Thika Superhighway?
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. For how long have you worked on Thika Superhighway, in particular at the Toll Station?
__________________________________________________________________________
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5. How do you find the views on Thika Superhighway from this weighing station?
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
6. Do you experience any challenges in your work as a consequence of the current design of landscape aesthetics on Thika Superhighway?
_______________________________________________________________________________
If yes, what challenges?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. What changes/improvements would you want to see on the current design of landscape elements on Thika
Superhighway?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
8. Would the above changes/improvements help improve your working environment/performance?
_______________________________________________________________________________
If yes, how?
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
If no, why?
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Observation checklist
Study title: The Impact of Landscape Aesthetics on the experience of Highway Users
A Case of Thika Superhighway
Section A
Physical features along the corridor
Element

Quality

State of visual appearance 1.
2.
3.
4.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Section B
Size of the highway corridor
Highway corridor

Length in M

Width in M
Carrier
Pedestrian walk
Verge
Carrier

Pedestrian walk
Verge
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Section C
Highway speed limit allowed
Juja Section__________________________
K-Road Section________________________
Toll Section___________________________
Section D
Approximate number of users on site

Highway corridor

Length in M

Width in M
Carrier
Pedestrian walk
Verge
Carrier
Pedestrian walk
Verge

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