...Emerson’s Unifying Philosophy Throughout human existence, scholars have earnestly pursued knowledge and the attainment of truth. Historical figures such as Plato, Descartes, and Emerson sought answers to daunting questions of: ‘What is truth?’; ‘What is reality?’; ‘How is wisdom acquired?’ Many scholars believe these philosophers presented conflicting viewpoints: Plato encouraging skepticism among all previous historical, cultural, and personal perspectives; Descartes questioning definitions of reality and his very existence; Emerson encouraging self-trust and confidence in one’s ideals, opinions, and convictions. Surprisingly, reconciliation can be reached from these three differing hypotheses. Emerson’s thesis merely expounds from Descartes and Plato’s philosophies. He builds from Descartes’ search for self-identity and reconciles Plato’s skepticism with his views of self-trust and unconformity among scholars. Throughout “Mediations I and II”, Descartes disputes definitions of reality and identity, establishing a precursor to Emerson’s philosophy. Initially, Descartes questions all notions of being. In “Mediation I”, Descartes begins his argument explaining the senses which perceive reality can be deceptive and “it is wiser not to trust entirely to any thing by which we have once been deceived” (Descartes 59). But, he then continues to reason; “opinions [are] in some measure doubtful…and at the same time highly probable, so that there is much more reason to believe in...
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...Dotten PHIL 140 Dr. Scott 17 October 2014 A Supreme being’s Influence on Thought “Cogito ergo sum” uttered by the man who is referred to as the “Father of Modern Philosophy” translates to “I think, therefore I am.” Rene Descartes authored Discourse on the Method as well as Meditations on First Philosophy, a narrative that explores the concepts of the ideas he employs. Descartes regards the power of reasoning and concrete sensations as more rational than that of gathering knowledge based on faith. After meditating upon this philosophical notion, Descartes’ argument has the power to provide hypothetical evidence towards the existence of a higher being, a.k.a. God. By observing the patterns of Descartes’ arguments regarding the method of gathering knowledge, one...
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...Rene Descartes’ theory of dualism was one of most advanced forms of philosophical dualism, it is commonly related to the correspondence between Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and Descartes. In this essay, I will explain the problem that Elisabeth had with Descartes new found ideas and elaborate on his replies. In doing so I will create a deeper understanding of Cartesian Dualism and analyze the possibility of it still being an accurate claim after many centuries. Descartes’ felt the only thing in his life that could not be a deception from the Great Demon was his mind. He believed his body and surroundings could all be an illusion, but of the one thing he was sure of, because he had complete control over was his mind, his philosophy was “I think, therefore I am.” Because of this, he proposed that the mind and the body were two separate entities. This proposal went against the common theories of the time, leading Princess Elisabeth to write to Descartes asking for further explanation on what exactly he meant by the mind and body being “separate”. She asked how it could be possible for the mind and body to be separate entities yet still work in perfect unity. Descartes suggests that because of Elisabeth’s metaphysical beliefs, she is not capable of comprehending the mind and body as individual, separate entities. (Tollesfen, 1999) However, Princess Elisabeth did not only write to Descartes to have Philosophical conversation, but for assurance on the morality of Descartes theory...
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... I will classify the concept of understanding into three levels: believing, knowing, and having certainty about something. To believe is to accept an idea in our mind that could be innate, adventitious and self-produced. To know is to make judgement on what we believe based on experience, while to have certainty is to know without a doubt that an idea or knowledge is a definite truth. At the end of his Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes comes up with a conclusion that an external world does indeed exist regardless of his perception. He begins his meditations by doubting everything he sense and experience, supposing that everything he knows about the external world is just a dream. In this state of absolute doubt, he withdraws the mind from the sense and tries to perceive the nature of reality through a purely intellectual perspective. The first thing Descartes realizes he can be certain of is his own existence for he would have to exist to be able to think and have ideas about many things (p. 64). In finding reality about the existence of an external world, Descartes considers the only four possible source of his ideas of external world: (i) oneself, (ii) God, (iii) an evil demon, and (iv) the external things themselves. (i) cannot be true for oneself cannot create and diminish ideas of the external world according to his will. (ii) also...
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...Ahmad Compare and contrast Aristotle‘s concept of mind with that of Descartes. Introduction In this essay I attempt to show Aristotle’s concept of soul/mind*[1]. Then I compare and contrast it with Descartes’ concept of mind. In order to understand Aristotle’s concepts of mind, I shall consider Aristotle’s De Anima, in which Aristotle mostly concentrates on soul/mind discussion. I will examine the work of Kahn and Sorabji, who both considered Aristotle’s and Descartes’ philosophy in relation to soul and body problem. In order to compare Aristotle’s concept of mind with Descartes’, I am going to introduce Descartes’ most famous philosophical work which involves the question of mind directly, namely hisMeditations. …………………………. …………………………… ………………………………. If we look at Aristotle’s De Anima we can understand that pre-Aristotle thinkers were already concerned with corporeal and incorporeal problems. For example, for Plato soul was an ‘incorporeal’ and immortal thing, but body corporeal and mortal. The first impression we get from reading De Anima is that the mind and body problem was unsolved. Perhaps the resolved problem didn’t satisfy Aristotle. Aristotle claims that an incorporeal thing cannot exist without a corporeal thing. Aristotle’s new theory for solving soul and body problems makes controversial debate among most post-Aristotelian philosophers. Rene Descartes was one of them who rejected the Aristotelian concept of mind in...
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...The Matrix, Plato, and Descartes For centuries, man has embarked on a relentless, philosophical journey to unearth a necessary answer to the question—what is real? The megahit film, The Matrix, ingeniously created by the Wachowski brothers, brings the world’s most celebrated, philosophical theories to light as they attempt to postulate a binding remedy. The first of these theories dates past 380 BC, when Plato crafted his allegorical masterpiece, “The Cave,” which denotes a metaphor contrasting the manner in which man perceives reality. The second involves French philosopher Rene Descartes and his recognized dissertation, “Meditation,” which also proposes a distinctive perspective on the issue. A comprehensive study of the philosophical concepts of “The Cave” and “Meditations” and their manner of manifestation in The Matrix allows one to broaden and enhance his understanding of reality. First of all, one can find several analogous elements when comparing the three works. Each of these revolves around the concept that the illusions man accepts as truth drastically differ from reality. This reality is then unveiled in distinct, but related journeys, which involve a source of deception and a series of logical, enlightening experiences and steps. These steps include a progressive doubt, a means of escape to find truth, a common agony in facing truth, and a growing acceptance of reality and the altered life it comes with. In The Matrix, an average computer programmer, Neo, is led...
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...Rene Descartes When the term modern philosophy is mentioned, it is usually to make a distinction from ancient and medieval philosophy therefore it does not only mean the philosophy of the 21st century, it means, the philosopher Rene Descartes. Therefore in practice what the term, modern philosophy means is, philosophy from Descartes onwards. He was best known for his quote, ‘Cogito ergo sum’ (I think, therefore I am). Descartes was born on March 31st 1596, in La Haye, a small town in France. He was educated in classics, logic and the philosophy of Aristotle at the Jesuit college of Henri IV in La Fleche. After he graduated he studied at the University of Poitiers, obtaining his law license in 1616. He then joined the army and during his spare time he studied mathematics (Gaukroger and Hall, 1995). In 1619, he experienced the series of powerful dreams, which influenced him greatly in his pursuit of science and knowledge, and he acknowledged this ass his focal point of his life (Gaukroger and Hall, 1995). Descartes spent time in various parts of Europe before he settled in Dutch Republic. He maintained his studies and lived in various places throughout the Republic. During this time, he began his writing career, and he started to publish his new works that would revolutionize mathematics and philosophy, these works included the world, meditation of first philosophy, principles of philosophy and passions of the soul. His mathematical theories provided the basis for the...
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...PHI130 Mind, Meaning, and Metaphysics DALILE, Boushra Rationalism vs. Empiricism: A Deficient Distinction Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It explores how knowledge can be acquired and considers its limits and validity. Rationalism and empiricism are distinct epistemological schools of thought. Among others, they differ significantly regarding the source of concepts and ideas. Prominent rationalists, including Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz, argue that one must rely on reason as a purely deductive process to attain justified truths about reality (Cottingham 1988). In contrast, empiricists, including Locke, Berkeley and Hume, argue that knowledge is derived from the role of experience and sense data to formulate ideas. The question of what is the ideal foundation of knowledge is still debatable to date. I will argue that the rationalist vs. empiricist distinction is not exhaustive, and that carefully considering the approach-discipline relationship is crucial. In order to support this claim, this essay will discuss differences between rationalism and empiricism. Next, it will closely examine the advantages of each, drawing on the works of René Descartes and David Hume. Finally, this essay will identify problems with both theories and argue that reason and experience can together generate factual knowledge with respect to the subject matter. The major difference between rationalism and empiricism concerns their knowledge...
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...The Matrix, Plato, and Descartes Whether one elects for the “red pill of truth”, or the “blue pill of deception”, the battle for the human mind is being waged. Similarities between the motion picture, The Matrix, “The Allegory of the Cave” from Plato, the Republic, Book VII, 514A1-518D8, and Meditation 1 of The Things of Which We May Doubt, from Rene’s Descartes, Meditations on the First Philosophy 1641, include the existence of the opposing force that seeks to deceive the human (mind) soul, and hold the body captive by existing in a state of illusion. Each character confronts the enemy of deception and must choose what to do with the truth revealed to them. In contrast for some, the reality of the truth will prove to be too much. The knowledge of the truth can still be rejected and living the illusion of a lie can still be accepted. Neo was born enslaved in a pod, physically stored in liquid, and controlled by the artificial intelligence of computers and machines. Neo serves as an energy source and is fed artificial images that hold him in an induced dream state of a virtual reality. Like Neo, the prisoner of Plato’s cave, has been held in bondage since birth. The prisoner is bound with chains in a fixed position, given only the illusion of reality from dancing shadows on the walls from those outside the cave. The cave consists of people holding others captive to a physical existence and mental prison limited by their physical senses. Unlike Neo being bound by...
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...All in all, Aristotle’s philosophy made an astounding influence. In fact, it is in Aristotle’s Philosophy that Alexander the Great, which the former tutored in 347 BCE, laid down the foundations of the latter’s empire. Throughout Alexander’s rule, the influence of Aristotle, his mentor, can be seen in the former’s skillful and diplomatic handling of difficult problems throughout his career. When Alexander became a king, he had set forth on a Persian expedition to expand his empire. Perhaps, it is the experience of the encounter between people’s that played a huge role in the development of the idea of cosmopolitanism, the idea that a man is a citizen of the world. “Aristotle's writings, like Plato's, have influenced virtually every avenue...
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...contingently exist. An example of contingent existing would be a balloon is in my hand; prior to making this balloon the balloon did not exist and after the balloon pops and disintegrates it too will not exist. This balloon has contingent existence and it is not necessary. The proof that God exists must be a necessity and should be stronger than evidence that ‘God’ does exist. Something had to create the universe because it did not always exist, therefore God must exist. Many people dispute, thus saying that there is not actual proof that God does exist but that is where faith comes in the picture. Which argument for the existence of God is strongest and why? There are a few strong arguments for the existence of God. First there is the ontological argument which states that it is quite likely that a flawless being does exist. In theory a being such as that couldn’t be perfect unless it in essence did in fact exist. Therefore a perfect being must exist, which is one argument about how God must exist. The opposition could object and say that since no one could describe or envision a perfect being into existing then God must not exist. Another argument that could be made for God’s existence is the...
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...HubPages exploresign injoin now flag Explore »Education and Science (65,836) »Psychology and Psychiatry (3,569) by shazwellyn 1,094 Followers Psychology 101, What Are The Historical Perspectives In Psychology? In this Psychology 101 article, we ask what are the historical perspectives in psychology? Now, this question provokes a thesis on its own, but here we evaluate specific times of extraordinary turning points leading to where we are today. We are all psychologists in our own right. We have the innate ability to draw conclusions by watching the behaviours of others. So, where, whom and what legitimizes psychology as a science and how did we arrive there? It is through history, that we have built and drawn from our own evaluations as a species. So, what is psychology? Psychology Definition As this is a psychology 101 based article, as always, we will start by providing a ‘working definition’ of psychology as a term: ‘Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour of humans and animals.’ Psychologists concentrate on what is observable and measurable in a person’s behaviour. This includes the biological processes in the body, although, the mind is central to the subject. ψ - This is the Greek letter pronounced as 'Sigh' and spelled as 'Psi'. It is now used as the International symbol of Psychology. Psychologists think it is important to be scientific in their study. This is to avoid confused thinking. What Is Psychology...
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...Being-for-itself, Being-in-itself, and Being-for-others: Sartre's Modes of Being I am therefore I think; Sartre's modes of being can be viewed as an extension to Descartes' famous aphorism. The three modes of being affirm that man has to exist first before he can begin to question his essence. There would be no point in ascribing meaning to life or one's existence if one does not realize that acknowledging one's existence precedes every other meaningful quest in life (Descartes & Weissman, 1996, p. 3). The three modes of being also suggestively point to the fact that, amidst our increasingly controlled and regulated universe, there exist free will amongst each individual provided they acknowledge that their existence comes before their individual essence. This challenges earlier notions of viewing the human condition as a single entity in isolation of its social context. Sartre acknowledges that human existence is intertwined and embedded in social the contexts one happens to exist in. The three modes of being are thus used to explain this dynamic existence in a sense that Sartre establishes the foundations of existentialism from them. Being-in-itself and being-for-itself are the primary modes of being that describes human consciousness. Being-for-others is a dynamic dimension used to explain our acknowledgment that we exist in a world with others and describes our varied approaches towards how we choose to encounter the 'others' in the world. The primary modes of...
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...An idealist is one who on, on noticing that a rose smells better than acabbage, concludes that it is also more nourishing. Mencken H. L.On Ideals and Idealism The educational approach of this philosophy is of a holistic nature. In which self-realization and character development is strongly supported. The idealist feelsthat with the growth of a fine moral character as well as personal reflection,wisdom is gained. The holistic approach is supported instead of a specializedconcentration on a specific targeted area. By combining experiences gainedthrough critical thinking and dealing with broader topics, the idealist creates anenvironment in which a learner can rationalize information across curriculum.Idealism as a philosophy had its greatest impact during the nineteenth century.Its influence in today’s world is less important than it has been in the past..Idealism is the conclusion that the universe is expression of intelligence and will,that the enduring substance of the world is the nature of the mind, that thematerial is explained by the mental. Idealism as a philosophy stands in contrastwith all those systems of thought that center in nature (naturalism) or in man(humanism)." According to idealism "to be" means to be experienced by aperson. Idealism holds that the order of the world is due to the manifestation inspace and time of an eternal and spiritual reality. As to knowledge, idealismholds that knowledge is man thinking the thoughts and purposes of this eternaland spiritual...
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...Pre-Socratic Period Thales of Miletus Background: Thales of Miletus (fl. c. 585 BC) is regarded as the father of philosophy. Thales of Miletus was considered one of the Seven Wise Men of ancient Greece. Thales was the first of the Greek natural philosophers and founder of the Ionian school of ancient Greek thinkers. Works/Writings/Philosophy: His is said to have measured the Egyptian pyramids and to have calculated the distance from shore of ships at sea using his knowledge of geometry. He also predicted an eclipse of the sun. In geometry Thales has been credited with the discovery of five theorems like the one that a triangle inscribed in a semicircle has a right angle. He tried to discover the substance from which everything in nature is made off and suggested water. Thales is important in bridging the worlds of myth and reason. He initiated the revolutionary notion that to understand the world one needed to know its nature and that there was an explanation for all phenomena in natural terms. That was a giant step from the assumptions of the old world that supernatural forces determined almost everything. While considering the effects of magnetism and static electricity, he concluded that the power to move other things without the mover itself changing was a characteristic of "life", so that a magnet and amber must therefore be alive in some way (in that they have animation or the power to act). If so, he argued, there is no difference between the living and the dead...
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