...The Role of DNA and RNA Transmission of information within the Cell GRT1 Introduction DNA and RNA play a significant role in cell growth through the necessitation of the cell replication processes. DNA is tasked with the responsibility of holding the code that constitutes an organism. Similarly, RNA is responsible for the execution of the gene code written in the DNA code. Additionally, it is responsible for the ultimate proliferation of the original DNA code. In a broad view, DNA is made up of a sequence of nucleotides that shape up to form a double helix. Through transcription, the sequence of the DNA is transferred into mRNA by the aid of enzymes. The message encoded in the mRNA is then translated into a sequence of amino acids then into proteins by ribosomes. Generally, DNA is responsible for storing gene information while RNA is tasked with the responsibility of turning the information into a functional form (Omoto & Lurquin, 2004). A. DNA replication at biochemical level DNA replication is imperative for the growth of organisms through cell division. The process involves the division of two strands in the genome where a replica of genetic information is carried. The two strands of the DNA are first separated into two strands from which complimentary strands are generated. Each strand of the of the original DNA molecule befalls a template for new molecules (Hall, 2011). Two major enzymes are responsible for this process; DNA polymerase III and RNA Primase...
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...The Raw Materials of Biotechnology The Molecules of Cells Entire organism System Tissue Cells Organelle Molecules Atoms Molecular/atoms lowest level of organization Organic chemistry Chemistry of Carbon CHNOPS ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Sulfur Several Trace Minerals Forms a bond with 4 other atoms in which electrons are shared forming a covalent compound C H C H H H CH4 \ H C H H OH CH3OH H H H C C OH H H CH3CH2OH O H C H CH2O All are polymers All are organic (C) compounds Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids Differ in terms of composition and function Carbohydrates……. Energy, support and recognition Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure, recognition, transport pigments, signals, mov’t Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure energy storage, signals cellular metabolism (VitK..) Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein information, energy, signals Carbohydrates……. Polysaccharide..of simple sugars Proteins……………..Polypeptide..of amino acids Lipids………………..Insoluble in water..although common polymer glycerol and fatty acid Nucleic Acids……….Polynucleotide..of nucleotides -OH Several OH (alcohol) groups This group LOVES water Makes sugars solids and water soluble C with a double bond to an oxygen Aldehyde or ketone Joins w/an –OH to form a cyclic structure The resulting C (C-1) has...
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...the double helix structure of DNA. This article is often termed a "pearl" of science because it is brief and contains the answer to a fundamental mystery about living organisms. This mystery was the question of how it is possible that genetic instructions are held inside organisms and how they are passed from generation to generation. The article presents a simple and elegant solution, which surprised many biologists at the time who believed that DNA transmission was going to be more difficult to deduce and understand. The discovery had a major impact on biology, particularly in the field of genetics, enabling later researchers to understand the genetic code . Origins of molecular biology The application of physics and chemistry to biological problems led to the development of molecular biology. Molecular biology is particularly concerned with the flow and consequences of biological information at the level of genes and proteins. The discovery of the DNA double helix made clear that genes are functionally defined parts of DNA molecules and that there must be a way for cells to make use of their DNA genes in order to make proteins. Linus Pauling was a chemist who was very influential in developing an understanding of the structure of biological molecules. In 1951, Pauling published the structure of the alpha helix, a fundamentally important structural component of proteins. In early 1953, Pauling published an incorrect triple helix model of DNA. Both Crick, and particularly...
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...Laura S. Horowitz, Hearthside Publishing Services Marketing Manager: Allison Powell Designer: Steve Druding Compositor: Maryland Composition/Absolute Service Inc. Ninth Edition Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, © 2000 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, © 1996 Lippincott-Raven, © 1992, 1988, 1983, 1979 JB Lippincott Co. 351 West Camden Street Baltimore, MD 21201 Printed in the People’s Republic of China All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including as photocopies or scanned-in or other electronic copies, or utilized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner, except for brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Materials appearing in this book prepared by individuals as part of their official duties as U.S. government employees are not covered by the above-mentioned copyright. To request permission, please contact Lippincott Williams & Wilkins at 530 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106, via email at permissions@lww.com, or via web site at http://www.lww.com (products and services). Not authorized for sale in North America and the Caribbean. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication...
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...MICROBIOLOGY 2051 BRINNINSTOL Characteristics of Cells: true of all living cells * Communicate with environment * Molecules being exchanged—recognized by other cells—causes cell to do something (releasing toxins; move) * Growing—one cell divides and becomes two cells (binary fisson) * Some form appendages—form differently, look dfrnt, function dfrnt—spores, cysts, flagella * Evolve—ancestral cell Microbial Communities Table 1.1 More water than land Most microbes in soil Origin of Earth * 3.8 billion years ago—evidence of microbial cells Agriculture * Bacteria in plant (soybean plant) fixes nitrogen to usable nitrogen for environment * Cows have microbes in digestive tract to digest grass into sugar Energy—biofuels (methane, ethanol—from sugar cane) produced from microbial Disease—Cause & Treatment * More death-causing bacteria in 1900’s than today (in US!) Food—Microbes make food—bread, beer, cheese, 1665—Hooke; first to describe microorganisms through primitive microscope; drew picture of sprouting bodies 1676—Leeuwenhoek; first to describe bacteria; tiny microscope; drew multiple pictures of dfrnt kinds Four Types of Light Microscopy: 1. Brightfield: simplest; stained and illuminated, 10x 100x 1000x 2. Phase Contrast: cast shadow; shows depth 3. Darkfield: black background; light refracted 4. Fluorescent: fluorescent stained; naturally fluorescent;...
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...Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus . During the initial infection, a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the illness progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system, making the person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who have working immune systems. HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Prevention of HIV infection, primarily through safe sex and needle-exchange programs, is a key strategy to control the spread of the disease. There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. While antiretroviral treatment reduces the risk of death and complications from the disease, these medications are expensive and may be associated with side effects. Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the early twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause—HIV infection—was identified in the early part of the decade. Since its...
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...Chromosomes are thread like gene carrying structures found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one DNA molecule and associated proteins (ghr.nlm.nih.gov). Genes are segments of DNA. These are the units which make up chromosomes, responsible for the inheritance of specific characteristics. Alleles are alternate versions of genes. A dominant allele is the version of that gene that is always shown as the characteristic. A recessive allele is only shown if there is no dominant allele present inherited information is passed on in the form of each genes specific sequence of nucleotides that make up DNA. Most genes programme cells to synthesise proteins that produces an organisms inherited traits. Traits are organisms’ characteristics. The transmission of hereditary traits is based on the replication of DNA which produces copies of genes that can be passed on from parents to offspring. Humans have 46 chromosomes in almost all cells (apart from sex cells for example sperm and egg cells which are haploid or have half the number of chromosomes) Sexual reproduction results in greater degree of variation. Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from two parents. Sexual reproduction generates genetic variation by homologous parings (half of the chromosomes form the mother and half from the father). The process crossing over is the exchange of genetic material which enhances variation in a species; it produces recombinant chromosomes...
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...Biology- The scientific study of life. Life is structured on a size scale ranging from the molecular (smallest components of life) to the global (Earth) scale. Biology encompasses a large variety of life on earth. Uses of Biology in every day life: Molecular Biology – (Biology that deals with the smallest components of life such as cells, DNA, RNA) is used to solve crimes and reveal ancestry. Ecology- The scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment is used to address environmental issues. Neuroscience- Field in biology that deals with brains; and Evolutionary science- the study of the evolution of organisms are being used to reshape psychology and sociology. Characteristics of Life: Living things are organized – The organs or vital components that make up a living organism each perform a specific function in an organized way such that it allows the organism to live. Regulation – All living organisms have the ability to regulate and accommodate to changes in their environment in order to stay alive. Growth and Development – Living organisms have the ability to grow and develop. Energy Utilization – Living organisms use energy or convert energy from a food source in order to carry or be able to perform different functions. For example, the human body utilizes carbohydrates found in food as a source of energy. With this energy, humans are able to perform simple tasks such as walking, talking, breathing, etc. Response to environment – Similar...
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...gathering, storing, analysis and the merging of biological data. Bioinformatics is not a research area by itself but lies between biological sciences and computational sciences. The main goal of bioinformatics is to review the value of biological information that is hidden in the large amount of data come up a clear picture of the basic biology of organisms. There are several fields that have been revolutionized by the technology used in bioinformatics (Ouzounis & Christos, 2012). These fields include human health, the environment, agriculture, energy and biotechnology. This science of bioinformatics is also called computational biology and has found a lot of use in increasing the quality of life. Bioinformatics developed due to the great need to internalize the DNA which is the code of life. Growth in the field of bioinformatics has been facilitated by development of many DNA sequencing projects. The basic biology of life is controlled by the basic molecule of life called DNA. The DNA acts as the blue print for genes which code for proteins. The proteins coded for by these genes determine the biological composition of all the living organisms. The variation and errors that occur in the replication, transcription and translation of genomic DNA determines whether one develops a certain disease or resistance to the same disease (Vivian, Lópe, Luis, María ,Moreno, & Corchado, 2012). Bioinformatics is currently in use and more uses are expected in future...
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...catch malaria every year, and 200 million are infected with schistosomiasis. 39.5 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 4.3 million new HIV infections in 2006 (65% in sub-Saharan Africa). The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) hope to be achieved by 2015. These are: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, universal primary education, gender equality and empowerment of women, reduction in child mortality,improvement in maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS,malaria and other diseases, ensuring environment sustainability and developing global partnership for development. DEFINITION INFECTION An infection is the entry and multiplication of an infections agent in the tissue of host. lf the infectious agent fails to cause injury to cells or tissue, then infection is asymptomatic. INFECTIOUS DISEASE An infectious disease is any change from a state of health in a part or all of the host body is not capable of carrying on its normal functions due to the presence of an organisms or its products. Infection and immunity involve interaction between...
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...A2 Biology Unit 5 page 1 AQA A2 Biology Unit 5 Contents Specification Human Nervous system Nerve Cells The Nerve Impulse Synapses Receptors Muscle Animal Responses Control of Heart Rate The Hormone System Homeostasis Temperature Homeostasis Blood Glucose Homeostasis Control of Mammalian Oestrus Plant Responses The Genetic Code Protein Synthesis Gene Mutations Stem Cells Control of Gene Expression Biotechnology DNA sequencing Southern Blot In vivo cloning Genetically Modified Organisms Gene Therapy Genetic Screening and Counselling 2 4 6 0 14 17 24 28 30 33 34 38 42 44 48 50 54 57 63 66 71 76 80 85 89 92 Molecular Genetics These notes may be used freely by A level biology students and teachers, and they may be copied and edited. Please do not use these materials for commercial purposes. I would be interested to hear of any comments and corrections. Neil C Millar (nmillar@ntlworld.co.uk) Head of Biology, Heckmondwike Grammar School High Street, Heckmondwike, WF16 0AH Jan 2010 HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 8/09 A2 Biology Unit 5 page 2 Biology Unit 5 Specification Control Systems Organisms increase their chance of survival by responding to changes in their environment. The Nerve Impulse The structure of a myelinated motor neurone. The establishment of a resting potential in terms of differential membrane permeability, electrochemical gradients and the movement of sodium and potassium ions. Changes in membrane permeability lead to depolarisation and the...
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...Benchmark Assignment: HIV Epidemiology Paper Dawn Hickey-Johnson Grand Canyon University Benchmark Assignment: HIV Epidemiology Paper “The global trends and adverse health impact of HIV, viral hepatitis, STIs, and TB remain among the major and urgent public health challenges of our time. These conditions account for substantial morbidity and mortality, with devastating fiscal and emotional costs to individuals, families, and societies. Despite decades of investment and support, the U.S. still experiences a disproportionate burden of these conditions compared with other Western industrialized nations, with substantial health disparities being observed across population subgroups and geographic regions.” (Hazel D. Dean, ScD, MPH Kevin A. Fenton, MD, PhD, 2010) This paper will focus specifically on HIV/AIDS. “ Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. · AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified in the early 1980s. ("STOP AIDS," 2009) Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome(AIDS) is a disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV attacks the human immune system, and progressively reduces its effectiveness, leaving the host susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. Due to the extended incubation period, the time between being infected with the virus and the manifestation...
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...AS Biology: OCR Syllabus Module 1.1.1 3.1 AS Unit: Cells, Exchange and Transport Module 1: Cells 1.1.1 Cell Structure Candidates should be able to: (a) state the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, a transmission electron microscope and a scanning electron microscope; Light Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope Scanning Electron Microscope Resolution 0.2 μ (200nm) 0.2nm 0.2nm Magnification ≈ ×1500 / 2000 Over 500 000 250 000 (b) explain the difference between magnification and resolution; Resolution “the ability of an optical system to distinguish between two adjacent objects” Magnification increases the apparent size of an object” Resolving power “the degree of detail that can be seen with a microscope” The resolving power is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the radiation used (i.e. the shorter the wavelength, the greater the resolution). (c) Stains: (d) explain the need for staining samples for use in light microscopy and electron microscopy; - most biological structures are transparent the stain gives a contrast between different structures the stain combines with certain chemicals in the structure - Iodine solution: Starch → blue-black - Eosin solution: cytoplasm → pink - Feulgens agent DNA → dark red / purple - Aceto-orcein agent calculate the linear magnification of an image (HSW3); Page 1 of 8 AS Biology: OCR...
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...Microbiology 1 SCOPE AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MICROBIOLOGY “Science contributes to our culture in many ways, as a creative intellectual activity in its own right, as a light which has served to illuminate man’s place in the uni-verse, and as the source of understanding of man’s own nature” —John F. Kennedy (1917–63) The President of America The bacterium Escherichia coli INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE MICROBIOLOGY is a specialized area of biology (Gr. bios-life+ logos-to study) that concerns with the study of microbes ordinarily too small to be seen without magnification. Microorganisms are microscopic (Gr. mikros-small+ scopein-to see) and independently living cells that, like humans, live in communities. Microorganisms include a large and diverse group of microscopic organisms that exist as single cell or cell clusters (e.g., bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, protozoa and helminths) and the viruses, which are microscopic but not cellular. While bacteria and archaea are classed as prokaryotes (Gr. pro-before+ karyon-nucleus) the fungi, algae, protozoa and helminths are eukaryotes (Gr. eu-true or good+ karyon-nucleus). Microorganisms are present everywhere on earth, which includes humans, animals, plants and other living creatures, soil,water and atmosphere. Microorganisms are relevant to all of our lives in a multitude of ways. Sometimes, the influence of microorganisms on human life is beneficial, whereas at other times, it is detrimental. For example, microorganisms are required...
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...the practicing physician. This book attempts to facilitate the learning of microbiology by presenting the information in a clear and entertaining manner brimming with memory aids. Our approach has been to: 4) Create a conceptual, organized approach to the organisms studied so the student relies less on memory and more on logical pathophysiology. The text has been updated to include current information on rapidly developing topics, such as HIV and AIDS (vaccine efforts and all the new anti-HIV medications), Ebola virus, Hantavirus, E. coli outbreaks, Mad Cow Disease, and brand-new antimicrobial antibiotics. The mnemonics and cartoons in this book do not intend disrespect for any particular patient population or racial or ethnic group but are solely presented as memory devices to assist in the learning of a complex and important medical subject. We welcome suggestions for future editions. 1) Write in a conversational style for rapid assimilation. 2) Include numerous figures serving as "visual memory tools" and summary charts at the end of each chapter. These can be used for "cram sessions" after the concepts have been studied in the text. 3) Concentrate more on clinical and infectious disease issues that are both interesting and vital to the actual practice of medicine. MARK GLADWIN, MD BILL TRATTLER, MD D CONTENTS Preface v PART 1 1 2 3 BACTERIAL TAXONOMY CELL STRUCTURES, VIRULENCE FACTORS, and TOXINS...
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