Traditional Japanese Culture and its Influence in Australia.

Abstract: This paper looks at traditional Japanese culture in its entirety, and how exactly certain traditional aspects have influenced societies within Australia. The purpose of this research was to not only discover how exactly Japanese culture is recognised within Australian society today; but also to identify how Australians have gravitated towards the culture in general, allowing for major aspects to become part of their everyday life. The start of this research began to look at past views of Japan in Australia (which covered the White Australia Policy, and attitudes during and after World War II), and contrasted this with Australians present day perspectives of Japan. The research then continued to look at traditional cultural aspects of Japan such as; Japanese dining and mannerisms, sport, religion and spirituality, and visual arts, and then continued to discuss exactly how these aspects have impacted and influenced Australia and its members of society. The findings of this research reached a conclusion that although Japan was once perceived extremely negative by Australians, its influence within the Australian wider community is not only undeniable, but immensely beneficial and constructive to society.

Introduction
The culture of Japan is a multi-layered and intricate system that has been developed and sustained for over thousands of years. The Japanese culture combines both ancient and contemporary aspects, allowing it to become one of the most prestigious and influential civilisations. Due to this, the Japanese culture (and its traditions) has become increasingly prevalent in non-Asian countries, and has been embraced by many non-Asian societies. This is extremely evident in Australia. Historically, Australia can be seen to have inhabited a preconceived notion of a rather hostile outlook on other cultures (including the Japanese). This is greatly apparent after World War II, where Australia adopted the United States’ (and the allies) negative perspective of Japan. Although these attitudes did exist, however, it must be noted that there has been an enormous shift towards a more favourable vision of Japanese culture in Australia. This can be seen through a huge increase in traditional Japanese aspects in Australia, such as: Japanese dining and mannerisms, sport, religion and spirituality, and visual arts. Whilst looking at these aspects in their traditional entirety, and by looking at both past and present views of Japanese culture, we can ultimately gain a deeper understanding of the cultures’ significance and relevance in not only Japan and Asian countries, but also in Australia.

Past Views of Japan in Australia
The past views of Japan in Australia have fluctuated enormously, allowing for Australians through generations to remove original racial stigmas; and replace them with the fundamental principles of acceptance and compassion that most citizens represent in today’s society. Prior to World War I, Australia was tied to the British Empire in a number of ways (being a dominion) which allowed for Australia to shape a negative opinion of the Japanese, as there was a belief in superiority of the white race (Meaney, 1995). Because the Japanese and Asian cultures represented unfamiliarity, it can be seen evident that ignorance helped breed racism (Meaney, 1995). In 1901, the Commonwealth Immigration Restriction Act 1907 (Cth), also known as the ‘White Australia Policy’, was passed which aimed to maintain racial purity and deter Asians (including Japanese people) from migrating to Australia (Meaney, 1995). All immigrants that wished to enter Australia were given a literacy test, in any European language (completely untranslatable to the Japanese people), allowing for migration rates of non-European people to Australia to drop quite significantly (Yarwood, 1962). This was not at all seen as discriminatory, but rather necessary, as a means to protect Australia from the Japanese aggressor (Meaney, 1995). According to Oliver (2004, p.12) Australia had “been both fascinated by Japan and wary of its military or economic influence, especially since 1905 with Japan’s victory in the Russo–Japanese war.”

Leading up to the events of World War I, and shortly after, Australia began to refrain from their darkened perception of the Japanese culture and its people (Oliver, 2004). This soon led to an affiliation with Japan after World War I, as there was a fundamental turning point in the Australia-Japan trade alliance, due to both nations fighting as wartime allies of Britain (Oliver, 2004). Small Japanese trading houses opened in Australia, leading to Australian citizens developing positive thoughts on the Japanese living in Australia, as they appeared to be both active and supportive persons in the community (Oliver, 2004). However, over the decades these perceptions changed once again, as Australia’s congruity with Japan was altered, due to fighting against each other during World War II (Oliver, 2004). Australia’s alliance with the United States during World War II meant that they envisioned the same enemies, a major one being that of Japan. Not only did acrimony exist towards the Japanese during the war, but it prevailed throughout Australian societies shortly after the wars cessation (Oliver, 2004). According to Oliver (2004, p.21), “World War II left a legacy of negative opinion about the Japanese for many Australians, which previously they had not generally held.” Shortly after the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, preparations were made in Australia for the deportation of all Japanese residents who had been interned, regardless of the length of their residence (Oliver, 2004). Japanese wives of Australian servicemen, Japanese businessmen, and other certain individuals who applied for (re-)entry to Australia were prevented from doing so due to Australia’s (newly constructed) tougher immigration laws (Oliver, 2004).
According to Oliver (2004), Japanese wives of Australian servicemen had their recognition of marriage dismissed in Australia, as it was deemed that any Japanese person living in Australia post World War II would be seen as utter pollution. It wasn’t until the signing of the Japanese Peace Treaty in 1952 that Australia started to somewhat remove the tensions that existed between themselves and Japan.

Present Relationship between Australia and Japan
The events and experiences of World War II affected the Australians perception of the Japanese for a whole generation, where economics and education have led to a more peaceful and prosperous relationship between Australia and Japan (Arndt, 1974). In 1976, Australia and Japan signed the Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (where its thirtieth anniversary was celebrated in 2006) to enhance relations between the countries in not only trade, but also for social and cultural factors (Mulgan, 2008). This was a significant bridging point in post World War II relations. Similar to this, a security relationship was also established between Australia and Japan, where in 2007 both countries signed the Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation (JADSC) (Mulgan, 2008). The JADSC aims to combat certain security issues like transnational crime, border security, and terrorism (Mulgan, 2008).

It is also significant to note how Australia has shifted from alliances with Commonwealth countries to Asian countries (like Japan) in recent years (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014). Japan has emerged as a leading trading partner of Australia, due to the signing of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), becoming Australia’s second biggest export market for food and energy products (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014). Japan has also invested a lot of capital into tourism in Australia, with over $131 billion being spent in 2014 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014). This contribution makes Japan the third largest investor into Australia (behind the United States and the United Kingdom), whilst also being the 6th largest visitor to Australia with over 323000 visits in 2014 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014).

The actions taken by both Australian and Japanese governments in forming a friendship-type alliance are only a mere reflection on how societies of both nations take to each other in the wider community. In current Australian society, the Japanese are greatly accepted; where Australians appreciate the Japanese’ place in the community, and the notions that make up their culture (Oliver, 2004). The previous fear of the threat of the Japanese society (brought on by the events of World War 2) no longer exists, where the Japanese are now active and valuable parts of the community (Arndt, 1974). In contradiction to the strongholds of the previous instilled White Australia Policy, the Japanese community and their culture is absolutely vital to the Australian society; where its removal or lack of existence would impact rather dramatically on Australians (Oliver, 2004). Despite the events and policies that have been undertaken in the past, the relationship between Australians and the Japanese has come full circle, allowing for an honourable mutual share of respect and gratitude between both nations (Oliver, 2004).

Japanese Cultural Traditions and Influences in Australia
Japanese Dining Culture and Mannerisms
The food culture of Japan is alike no other culture, dating back to thousands of years ago (Ashkenazi, 2013). Japanese cuisine and dining has been continually developed through the past centuries, allowing for the food culture of Japan to considerably stand out amongst most other Asian food cultures (Ashkenazi, 2013). The tradition of rice served with seasoned vegetables, fish, and other marine goods reached a highly refined and prestigious form during the Edo period of 1600-1868, and today still remains to be the native foundation of Japanese cuisine (Ashkenazi, 2013). Subsequent to the introduction of Buddhism to Japan during the 6th century, imperial laws and policies eliminated the eating of almost all animals (Ashkenazi, 2013). This developed a new vegetarian style of cooking, ‘shojin ryori’, which was popularised during the Zen period of the 15th century (Ashenazi, 2013). Ingredients that were introduced (mostly for their first time) during this period included; soy sauce, miso, tofu, and other soy related products, and their use in today’s modern Japanese cuisine is indisputably evident (Ashenazi, 2013).

Not only are traditional dishes and ingredients still relevant in Japanese cuisine today, but also are the types of dining styles and mannerisms that fit under the umbrella of Japanese culture. According to Ashkenazi (2013), there are three basic (and traditional) styles of Japanese cooking including: ‘honzen ryori’ (an elaborate style of banquet cooking), ‘chakaiseki ryori’ (the cuisine of the tea ceremony), and ‘kaiseki ryori’ (a multi course haute dinner), which also all follow an emphasis on an artistic and aesthetic presentation. Kaiseki ryori is generally the most represented form of dining in modern Japanese restaurants, as it evokes a calm and relaxed atmosphere, with fewer rules of etiquette (Ashkenazi, 2013). During kaiseki ryori dining, ‘saki’ is drunk during the meal with rice served at the end, and appetisers such as; ‘sashimi’ (sliced raw fish), ‘suimono’ (clear soup), ‘yakimono’ (grilled foods), and aemono (salads) are seved as appetisers, with tea to conclude the meal (Ashkenazi, 2013). According to Ashkenazi (2013), although most people interested in Japanese cuisine rarely have the opportunity to experience full-scale kaiseki dining, the types and order of foods represented in kaiseki ryori type meal form the basis of a contemporary full-course Japanese meal.

Whilst looking at Japanese cuisine and mannerisms in its traditional context is important, it can be noted that their significance is portrayed through its domicile in non-Japanese/Asian countries, such as Australia. According to Hamada (2011), the dominance of Japanese cuisine in Australia is increasingly prevalent, with many Australians enjoying the dining experience that Japanese culture has to offer. Unlike the experience in cuisine of other cultures, Australians are continually warming to the idea of a fresh, healthier style of food that Japanese dining has to offer (Hamada, 2011). This is evident in the opening of new Japanese restaurants across major Australian cities like Melbourne and Sydney, where locals enjoy not only the Japanese cuisine, but also the layout of the restaurants, the style in which the food is served, and the sheer aesthetics of Japanese dining in general (Hamada, 2011). It has become evidential that in Australia, Australians are starting to appreciate Japanese cuisine and dining as the experience as a whole, and not just the food that is served at the restaurant (Hamada, 2011). This is also extremely evident with Teppanyaki restaurants in Australia, where both meat and vegetables are cooked on a hot plate that forms the centre of the dinner table, where the chef continues to ‘throw’ (via cooking utensils) the cooked ingredients into the diners bowls (Hamada, 2011). The studies of Hamada (2011) show that Australians view Japanese dining as a form of both food and entertainment, where going to sit down for a meal not only satisfies the desire to eat, but also appeases the sense of pleasure and comfort.

Another aspect of Japanese cuisine that has grown popular in Australia is the product of sushi (Langley, 2015). According to Langley (2015), the popularity of sushi in Australia is continually rising, where products associated with other Asian cultures (such as the spring roll) is subsequently decreasing. The studies of Langley (2015) showed that from July 2009 to June 2014, the proportion of Australians who said they enjoyed eating sushi had grown from 36 per cent to 40 per cent. A main reason for the growing prevalence of sushi in Australia is the fact that the Australian population is shifting towards a healthier lifestyle that is perfectly complemented by sushi cuisine (Langley, 2014). Not only does sushi offer a great tasting and healthier alternative to other fast food on the market, but the continual opening of new sushi outlets (such as the Sushi Bay retailer) offers a convenient and faster way for Australians (and other sushi lovers) to get their meal. Also, certain sushi restaurants offer customers seating around a ‘conveyor belt-type’ eating area, where customers can pick different plates of sushi off the belt, when they rotate around (Langley, 2014). Not only does this reinforce the convenience associated with types of Japanese cuisine, but it also makes evident why Australians are gravitating towards Japanese dining; as it provides a different scenery of eating, and a refreshing experience of dining that is authentic to Japanese culture.

Japanese Sport and Sporting Events
Another major component that identifies the foundations of traditional Japanese culture is that of sport, and how it defines the Japanese lifestyle. A popular sport in Japan is martial arts, which is a codified system of combat practices; exercised for self defence, competition, physical health, entertainment, and spiritual development (Green and Svinth, 2010). According to Green & Svinth (2010, p.198), martial arts and their disciplines and traditions were “developed and evolved within the larger context of Japanese society.” Martials arts in Japan have immensely shaped societal values, allowing for individuals to exercise discipline, honour, respect and spiritual faith as a part of everyday life (Green and Svinth, 2010). The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in not only the warrior traditions of the samurai, but also the ‘caste system’ that restricted the use of weaponry for members of a non-warrior class (Green and Svinth, 2010). According to Green & Svinth (2010), combative techniques (like what is exercised in Japanese martial arts) are intertwined with constantly changing tools, requiring the techniques to use them to be invariably reinvented. As the evolution of tools in Japan made slow progress (compared to the rest of the world), they were forced to study their weapons with greater in-depth analysis, ultimately complementing the strength and willpower of Japanese societies
(Green and Svinth, 2010). Traditional forms of Japanese martial arts include; ‘Aikodo’ (no weaponry involved, but instead an individual emphasises holds and using their opponents aggression against them), Iaido (Japanese sword fighting), and Judo (Green and Svinth, 2010).

Another popular sport of Japan is that of ‘Sumo’ wrestling, where competitors employ throwing and grappling techniques to either force their opponent to the ground, or outside of the ring, in order to win the match (Noboru, 2004). Sumo wrestling is considered Japans national sport, which has its origins in the distant, imperial past (Noboru, 2004). The earliest records of sumo wrestling in Japan date back to 23 BC, and occurred specifically at the request of the emperor, and matches only ended when he was either satisfied, or an opponent was too wounded to continue (Noburu, 2004). The popularity of sumo wrestling grew immensely, with matches occurring at Shinto festivals (and not just at the emperor’s disposal) and eventually leading into a form of military training (Noburu, 2004). The sport of sumo wrestling grew so popular, that by the 17th century, it was officially recognised as an organised professional sport, which was open to public for all social classes (Noburu, 2004). Today, sumo wrestling is mostly held in Japan with six tournaments held annually for competitors to improve their form and ranking (Noburu, 2004).

The traditional sports of martial arts and sumo wrestling are undeniably relevant to Japanese culture and everyday life, however, both their presence and dominance within Australian society is somewhat limited. In regards to sumo wrestling, although it’s pre-eminence in Japan is unlike no other traditional sport, its place in Australia is virtually non-existent. Whilst this may be so, it is important to note that the influence of martial arts in Australia is increasingly prevalent, with individuals of all ages becoming actively involved in the sport (Green and Svinth, 2010). According to Green & Svinth (2010), martial arts is essential to forming the culture of Australia, due to Australia’s Aboriginal ancestry; who used weaponry and strategy to hunt and survive, extremely similar to the ancestry of Japan. The research of the Australia Bureau of Statistics (2009) showed that over 150000 children participate in martial arts annually, which is a significant increase from previous years. The development of martial arts in Australia not only offers great physical exercise and entertainment, but it also allows for Australians to be able to learn how to defend themselves from unwanted attacks, by using the necessary defence techniques (Green and Svinth, 2010).

Although the traditional sports of Japan (in comparison to other competing sports) are not completely dominant in Australia, it should be noted how other sports pertinent to Japanese culture have influenced societies in Australia. According to Light & Yasaki (2002) the Japanese national and professional soccer (football) competition, the ‘J- League’, has had a substantial effect on soccer in Australia; with many of the elite players travelling to Australia to play in the national competitions (such as the A-League, or previous National Soccer League), and subsequently encouraging both viewing and participation rates. With the presences of these Japanese ‘marquee’ players in the Australian professional leagues, Australians are happily inclined to watch their matches, ultimately allowing for participation rates, alongside soccer in Australia, to grow exponentially (Light and Yasaki, 2002). This can also be made evident with Japans presence in the 2015 Asian Cup for soccer. As Australians are aware of the excellence of the Japanese national team, the population becomes more actively engaged in the sport, due to Australia competing with Japan for the championship. This is also apparent with elite sportsmen competing against Australia in Japanese modern cultural sports like baseball, golf, and rugby union. Ultimately, through sport and its ties with Japan, it is evident that Australia is immensely influence by the Japanese culture.

Religion and Spirituality
Religion and spirituality in Japan reflects a long history in which religious beliefs and practices have been developed and adapted to Japanese culture (Anesaki, 2013). The most ancient religion of Japan is the ‘Shinto’ religion, which is an indigenous faith based on feelings of reverence and respect to the sacred powers of ‘kami’, who brought life to the earth and humanity (Anesaki, 2013). The Shinto religion is an action-centered religion, where religious practices are to be carried out ardently, in order to establish a connection and sense of belonging with modern-day Japan, and its ancient roots (Anesaki, 2013). The Shinto religion is much more than a religious practice of respect and honour, but rather an energy that focuses on spirituality and connecting the Japanese with the world around them (Anesaki, 2013). Practices of Shinto are determined largely by tradition and history, rather than dogma, where they can be divided into four affirmations including; tradition and family, love of nature and respect for Kami, physical cleanliness (purification rites), and festivals and ceremonies (dedicated to honouring and amusing the Kami) (Anesaki, 2013). It can be seen that the Shinto religion is vastly responsible for not only the way in which Japanese individuals live their life, but also connect with each other, and contribute as members of society (Anesaki, 2013).

Another dominant religion of Japan is ‘Buddhism’, where its introduction can be seen to be due to highly political and cultural reasons (Kitigawa, 1987). Dating back to the 6th century AD, Buddhism was originally introduced to Japan through a Korean kingdom, and its introduction was believed that it would thoroughly enrich the culture of Japan (despite having to overcome violent oppositions from conservative forces) (Kitigawa, 1987). Buddhism largely reflects the migration of Asian countries to Japan, and Japans ability to affirm their states power, and portray their dominance in the broader culture of East Asia (Kitigawa, 1987). Buddhism offers both moral and intellectual benefits, which can be argued that Shinto lacks, through a moral philosophy and ethical way of living (Kitigawa, 1987). In contrast to Shinto, Buddhism does not believe in a divine being or actual God, with no praying, worship or praising of a higher power (Kitigawa, 1987). Instead, Buddhism allows for one to be more of a humanitarian, serving for the greater good of society, and living both ethically and morally to gain the ultimate state of enlightenment (Kitigawa, 1987). Buddhism also reflects a belief system, in which it provides the individual with a long term purpose within their existence, through wisdom and understanding (Kitigawa, 1987). Ultimately, the Buddhist path allows the individual to lead a moral life, to be mindful and aware of their thoughts and actions, and to develop insight and understanding (Kitigawa, 1987).

Whilst Japanese religion and spirituality undeniably shapes the culture of Japan, its cultural dominance and significance can be made evident through its representation in non-East Asia countries, such as Australia. According to Spuler (2002), Buddhism’s development in Australia has increased dramatically since the 1980’s. The studies of Spuler (2002) suggest that Buddhism was first introduced in Australia in 1848, by the Chinese immigrants who arrived to work in the goldfields. However, this influence was very minor, and the increase in education (through residential teachers and monasteries) of Buddhism in Australia, provided by Japanese individuals, has led to the growing increase of the religion (Spuler, 2002). According to Nelson (1998), Buddhism does not preach the dogma like most religions, and most Australians who actively convert to Buddhism do so voluntarily, and are usually well-educated individuals who are attracted to a sense of inner peace. The research of Barker (2007) show that in 2006, Buddhists represented 2.1 percent of Australia’s population, doubling 1996 figures, and actively representing how Buddhism is one of Australia’s fastest growing religions. Religion that illustrates a divine power has not typically been as influential in Australia, compared to other countries, leading to Australians actively converting to Buddhism to improve their way of life (Barker, 2007). According to Barker (2007), Australians are becoming much more spiritually engaged, and prefer to better the way they act in society, rather than answer to the commands of a higher power. Through Buddhism, it is evident that certain dimensions of Japanese culture have a heavily influence in Australia, and a positive impact on the life of Australians.

Visual Arts
The history of Japanese art is a defining mechanism of Japanese culture, allowing for the communication of ancient beginnings of Japan, up until Japan in its present day. Historically, Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles including; ancient pottery, sculptures, paintings, and calligraphy (Mason and Dinwiddie, 1993). A major testament to Japanese art is its ability to survive for over thousands of years, despite its inevitable change through historical periods; and changes in style, tools and techniques (Mason and Dinwidde, 1993). According to Mason & Dinwiddie (1993), Japanese art has been able to absorb certain elements of the culture of Japan, and complement them with their aesthetic preferences. Japanese art dates back to the third and second millenia BC, however, the earliest found works of complex art date back to the 7th century (Mason and Dinwiddie, 1993). These works shared a connection with Buddhism, and communicated indigenous forms of expressions (Mason and Dinwiddie, 1993). The integrity of Japanese art has survived throughout civilisation due to its ability to not only connect and communicate with historical tradition, but also for its ability to translate serenity and define Japanese culture (Mason and Dinwiddie, 1993). It can be seen that Japanese art serves as an everyday reminder to the Japanese of how unique and distinguished their culture really is, and who exactly they are as a people (Mason and Dinwiddie, 1993).

The beauty and importance of Japanese art is not only relevant to the culture of Japan, but also to other non-Asian societies, such as Australia. Although the historical forms of Japanese art are somewhat recognised within Australia, their impact on translations on modern Japanese art can be seen as more of a major influence on Australians. This is evident with the variety of Japanese art galleries present in Australia, combined with the display of Japanese screen films at the ‘Japanese Film Festival’ (Japanese Film Festival, 2014). These forms of art have become widely popular in Australia, due to Australians recognition and interest into the Japanese culture (Japanese Film Festival, 2014). The importance of art associated with the Japanese culture is becoming more and more evident within Australia, with Australians appreciating not just the art forms in their entirety, but also what they represent (Japanese Film Festival, 2014). Because Australians continue to recognise the benefits associated with the Japanese culture, there has been a huge shift towards the involvement in cultural related areas (as listed above), with a major one being art. Ultimately, through the value and appreciation of art, it can be made evident how exactly the Japanese culture positively affects and influences Australian society.

Conclusion
The culture of Japan is alike none other, consisting of multi-layered systems that originated thousands of years ago. The Japanese culture involves both ancient and modern aspects, ultimately allowing it to become such a powerful and influential societal culture. This is extremely evident through its increasing prevalence in non-Asian countries, like Australia, where it has been embraced and acknowledged by a variety of members of Australian communities. Over the past, it can be noted that Australia has had a rather negative outlook on Japan. This can be seen through the previously instilled White Australia Policy, and the events and actions that took place during, and immediately after World War II. Although these attitudes did exist, however, there has been an enormous shift towards a more positive outlook on Japanese culture, and its place within Australian society. This is evident through an increase in Japanese cultural aspects in Australia such as; Japanese dining and mannerisms, sport, religion and spirituality, and visual arts. Through looking at these aspects in their traditional entirety, and then comparing this with their influence in Australia, we are able to gain a deeper understanding of the importance, significance, and uniqueness of the Japanese culture. Ultimately, through these findings, and through made references of scholarly literature on the subject; it is evident how valuable and influential Japanese culture is on Australians, and the wider Australian community.

Reference List
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