Verbal Learning
Psych 550
February 3, 2014
Dr. Greggor Yahr

Verbal Learning
Language has always fascinated people as in terms of the different dialect, accents, and cultures. Language has different learning styles and verbal learning techniques can be visual as well as spoken and understood. Verbal learning as stated by Gagne, 1977, is like skill learning in that it involves a chain of at least two links. “The first link is the presentation of the object (stimulus) and the observing of the object (the response) and the second link, the observing response results in certain internal stimuli which gives rise to the verbal response” (Gagne, 1977). The concepts of verbal learning have many stages and developments as not everyone learns in the same manner. The different concepts of verbal learning will be outlined throughout this paper in serial learning, paired associate learning, and free recall; as well as the concept of mnemonics and verbal stimuli.
Verbal Learning
Verbal learning concerns itself with acquisition and retention of lists and words that have been “memorized” in order to explain the basic laws of how learning takes place (Terry, 2009). A German psychologist named Herman Ebbinghaus was the first to introduce the methods associated with verbal learning in the 1880s (Terry, 2009). This early research looked at many of the variables that effect verbal learning such as being able to transfer from one list to another, the time between repetitions, and how many repetitions were used for the learning. Within verbal learning there are basic tasks. First there is serial learning which is learning that enables a person learns lists or items in a specific order and is able to reproduce the items in the learned order, such as the alphabet, how to spell words correctly or remember phone numbers. The second is paired-associate learning where the subject has the ability to make a verbal response to a specific item that is presented. Pair-associated learning uses a series of steps beginning with learning responses, being able to discriminate between the stimuli, and comparing the responses to the stimuli (Terry, 2009). Learning results from successful stimuli-response relationships and cognitive elaboration (Terry, 2009). For example, when you learn a foreign language and are presented with a stimulus (the foreign word) you would be able to give an appropriate response (the same word translated to English). The third task is free recall, one of the most widely used, which differs from serial learning in that knowing a specific order is not necessary (Terry, 2009). Free recall is improved by rehearsing, and demonstrates a conscious attempt to learn and remember (Terry, 2009). A test of how much has been retained can be done after on presentation or after several presentations to test how much was learned. There are studies that have been done that show there are different abilities and strategies used in learning that just one single verbal learning technique (Tulving & Madigan, 1970). It would be difficult to develop a correlation between laboratory testing and everyday memory and remembering because of an individual’s interest levels, experiences, and the tasks for each are different (Terry, 2009).
Compare and Contrast Serial Learning, Paired Associate Learning, and Free Recall
At the end of the 19th century, Herman Ebbinghaus changed the perception of memory from an ambiguous ability to a measureable, scientific concept (Kahana, Mollison, & Addis, 2010; Terry, 2009). Ebbinghaus used serial learning to measure learning and recall in his initial experiments (Johnson, 1991). The concepts of verbal learning was originated from Ebbinghaus’ research.
Serial Learning Ebbinghaus demonstrated in his research that through serial learning or repeated studying and subsequent testing, a person could recall or remember a list of unrelated items in the order in which the list was presented (Kahana, Mollison, & Addis, 2010, Johnson, 1991). Common examples include learning the alphabet, mathematical formulas, and the number sequences to a combination lock (Terry, 2009). Commonly, individuals learn the beginning and end items of the list more efficiently than the middle items, however recall becomes more accurate with each successive study period and test (Johnson, 1991). Researchers have theorized that the association of the previous item and next item in line as well as the location in the list the item is located is necessary for serial learning to occur (Kahana, Mollison, & Addis, 2010). Using the alphabet, a person is going to recall more readily the letter d if the person is asked “What letter follows the letter c?” over “What is the fourth letter of the alphabet?” The person has learned d as part of sequence; when the person hears the letter c, he or she will have already recalled the sequence abcd.
Paired Associate Learning Using the model of classical conditioning, in paired associate learning items in a list are paired with a stimulus item, prompting the recall of the list item (Rast & Zimprich, 2009). Common examples of paired associate learning include learning a person’s name by associating it with the person’s face, or associating a sport team’s city with the name of the team; for instance, Denver – Broncos (Terry, 2009). Paired associate learning and serial learning share many attributes including improvement with each succession of practice sessions and tests. Also common to the two tasks is the importance of association in learning. However, unlike serial learning, the association is the paired stimulus rather than the location in the chain of information (Rast & Zimprich, 2009). The alphabet is a chain that begins and ends at the same place each time. The names of football teams is associated only with the stimulus (team’s city), therefore it would be unnecessary to present them in any particular order.
Free Recall
Similar to paired associate learning, free recall learning differs from serial learning in that it does not depend on the presentation of information in any particular order. However, free recall is comparative to serial learning in that it depends on recall of listed items in a certain order. It is the individual, not the presenter, who creates the order (Lohnas, Polyn, & Kahana, 2010; Terry, 2009).
A commonplace example of free recall is a grocery list. If six items were on a grocery list such as apples, ketchup, detergent, dish soap, lettuce, and canned soup. The person receiving this list will categorize the list for greatest efficiency, apples, lettuce/ ketchup, canned soup/detergent and dish soap. Once categorized, the association is the organization of the list. Unlike paired association, the items are not linked to another item on the list only the grouping (Lohnas, Polyn, & Kahana, 2010). Bananas could be substituted for apples without affecting the recall of lettuce. As an enhancement to free recall one can use another tool known as mnemonics.
Mnemonics
Mnemonic devices are strategies that aid memory. Mnemonics are especially useful in enhancing verbal learning because the random items in many serial and associative learning tasks represent particular challenges to memory. Whether the task is recalling pi to multiple decimals, memorizing Chinese characters, or pairing names and faces, mnemonic strategies improve retention and recall by imposing meaning and/or familiar imagery on otherwise arbitrary and unfamiliar items during the encoding process.
Letter Mnemonics
Ubiquitous in schools, acronym mnemonics transform the first letters of list items into a single word or phrase. In English class, students learn the coordinating conjunctions as the FANBOYS, and in science, they remember the colors of the spectrum in correct serial position as ROY G. BIV.
First-letter mnemonics use the first letters of list items to create a memorable sentence. Math students learn the order of algebraic operations as Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally, and musicians learn the treble clef as Every Good Boys Deserve Fudge.
Keyword Method
Developed for and particularly useful in aiding foreign language vocabulary acquisition, the keyword method facilitates many kinds of paired-associative learning (Pressely, et al., 1980).
Keywords are mnemonic bridges that semantically and/or acoustically link to-be associated items. For example, one might bridge eggplant and its Italian equivalent melenzana with the keyword zany melon—a crazy purple egg-melon. Effective though they are for paired-association tasks, keyword-based memories are especially fragile if not frequently rehearsed (Wang and Thomas, 1995).
Narrative Chaining Method
The narrative chaining method builds on human’s natural strength as storytellers, imposing meaningful narrative onto otherwise unconnected data. In free-recall tests when order is not important, this method has proved slightly more effective than the keyword method (Hermann, 1987, cited in Terry, 2009).
Imagery Mnemonics While the verbal learning mnemonics previously mentioned are ‘verbal’ in the additional sense of relying on words or letters to aid recall, imagery mnemonics employ unique mental images to encode information; however an image that is too bizarre is more susceptible to interference (Persensky & Senter, 1970). Favored by competitive mnemonists (Squire, 2009), the method of loci builds upon most people’s strong sense of place. Learners construct mental maps of surroundings with which they are intensely familiar (Terry, 2009). Each location is then paired with an image of the to-be-recalled item. Envision placing your keys in the kitchen of a “memory palace” where Julia Child is whipping up key-lime pie. The peg-word method is particularly useful in remembering numbers. It assigns images and rhymes to numeric series such as “one is a bun, two is a shoe” (Terry, 2009). If “three is a bee,” a car parked on level three of the garage might be remembered as buzzing annoyingly because it is so annoying when you can’t find your car! There are a lot of benefits resulting from verbal learning and mnemonics as its been proving helpful in use of minimizing forgetfulness in the elderly (Verhaegen, Marcoen, & Goossens, 1992), helping to create memorable passwords (Nelson & Vu, 2010), and helping Alzheimer’s patients with face-name recognition (Bäckman, et al., 1991). Verbal learning has been very useful as well in schools and is where it is most effective.
Conclusion
Though verbal learning is explained by the use of verbalizing what is being learned in order to show and understanding of what is being taught, verbal learning does not depend on simple observation and words but on many other concepts such as relationships (cause & effect), problem solving, and other sequential abilities along with the all-seeing eyes. There is no direct way to how a child or person chooses to learn or by what method or technique is best put in place as people all learn differently and as stated by a CNN article children can learn by means of more than one learning style (Ralston, 2006). There is a reason why the pen is mightier than the sword for our voice is our strongest tool for we use verbal techniques to not only learn but to be effective as well, learning is a skill and like all skills and trades there are many techniques in use and our voice makes up one of our skills of learning.

References
Gagné, R. M. (1977). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
Ralston, J. (2006). Health and parenting. How your child learns. CNN.com. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/08/17/how.kids.learn.par/index.html?section=cnn Johnson, G. J. (1991). A distinctiveness model of serial learning. Psychology Review, 98(2), 204-217.
Kahana, M. J., Mollison, M. V., & Addis, K. M. (2010). Positional cues in serial learning: The spin-list technique. Memory & Cognition, 38(1), 92-101.
Lohnas, L. J., Polyn, S. M., & Kahana, M. J. (2010). Contextual variability in free recall. Journal of Memory and Language, 64(2011), 249-255.
Nelson, D., & Vu, K. L. (2010). Effectiveness of image-based mnemonic techniques for enhancing the memorability and security of user-generated passwords. Computers In Human Behavior, 26(4), 705-715. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.007
Persensky, J. J., & Senter, R. J. (1970). An investigation of 'bizarre' imagery as a mnemonic device. The Psychological Record, 20(2), 145-150.
Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., Nakamura, G. V., Hope, D. J., Bispo, J. G., & Toye, A. R. (1980). The keyword method of foreign vocabulary learning: An investigation of its generalizability. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 65(6), 635-642. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.65.6.635
Rast, P., & Zimprich, D. (2009). Individual differences and reliability of paired associates learning in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 24(9), 1000-1006.

Squire, Larry R. "The art of remembering: Larry R. Squire enjoys an engaging account of how memory works and how to win in memory competitions." Nature 472.7341 (2011): 33+. Health Reference Center Academic. Web. 31 Jan. 2014.
Terry, W. S. (2009). Learning and memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures Fourth Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Tulving, E. and Madigan, S.A., (1970). Memory and verbal learning. Annual Review of Psychology. 21(1970). Retrieved from http://alicekim.ca/AnnRev70.pdf
Verhaeghen, P., & Marcoen, A. (1996). On the mechanisms of plasticity in young and older adults after instruction in the method of loci: Evidence for an amplification model. Psychology And Aging, 11(1), 164-178. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.164
Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1995). Effects of keyword on long-term retention: Help or hindrance?. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 468-475. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.87.3.468