...Adapting to drought in the Sahel: lessons for climate change Michael Mortimore∗ The Sahel’s experience of adapting to changes in rainfall on a scale at least comparable to that of climate change scenarios, between the 1960s and the 1990s, suggests that lessons can be learnt that may have a wider utility for policy in the future. The Sahel is a major global agroecological region and its success in adaptation will influence the achievement of the global Millennium Development Goals. From simple typologies of adaptation strategies, our understanding of adaptive capacity has evolved over time (with accumulating observations) into a contextual model which places drought management at the center of a development process. Climate change impacts in future are very uncertain. Policies and interventions should therefore aim to build on the platform of past achievements and existing local knowledge to enable flexibility and diversity and the protection of assets of small-scale farmers and herders . 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. WIREs Clim Change 2010 1 134–143 ‘Africa is the most vulnerable region to climate change, due to the extreme poverty of many Africans, frequent natural disasters such as droughts and floods, and agricultural systems heavily dependent on rainfall’.1 ‘the continent’s low adaptive capacity serves as a major constraint to her ability to adapt’ (Ref 2. p. 6). ‘It is uncertain how rainfall in the Sahel, the Guinean coast and the southern Sahara will evolve in this century’...
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...explain why? Africa is the continent that makes the least contribution to global warming, but yet it is the most vulnerable to climate change. This may be because the population is dependent on resources which are climate-sensitive such as local water for farming and drinking. Africa is the poorest continent in the world which means it has very limited resources to respond to changing climate. Apart from poverty is suffers more than any other region from corrupt governance, civil war and constant tribal conflicts. The political turmoil means the appropriate responses aren’t made, making the impacts of climate change worse. The country also heavily relies on agriculture (70% of all employment), which is highly sensitive to climate change. Only 4% African farmland is irrigated, making agriculture susceptible to drought. These people have a reduced capacity to cope, e.g. subsistence farmers, who only grow enough to meet the needs of their family and have no income, will be at risk of starvation it climate change affects their crops. Future prediction Areas that are already dry (arid and semi-arid environments) are getting drier. Wetter areas (tropical and sub-tropical environments) are getting wetter. The whole continent is getting warmer – around 0.5 *C warmer in the last century. Impacts of global warming Global warming is causing desertification- the process by which fertile land becomes unusable for agriculture. It’s a major problem in the Sahel region (the...
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...Around 750 AD, under the influence of Islamic peoples, northern and western Africans began to use the camel to transport goods across this forbidding terrain. c. Camels do several things exceptionally well: they can carry unbelievably heavy loads for impossibly long distances and they can keep their footing on sandy terrain. It was as if someone had invented sand ships and its effect on western African culture was just as profound as if they were sand ships. d. The most important developments occurred in the Sahel area just south of the Sahara; the Sahel provided southern terminal points for the goods being shipped across the Sahara. The Sahel is a dry, hot area with fertile areas and grasslands; all of the major north African kingdoms grew up in this area: Ghana, Mali, Songhay, and Kanem-Bornu: the Sahelian kingdoms. SLIDE: African Empire Chronology SLIDE: Key terms SLIDE: Map of Africa II. Sahelian kingdoms a. The largest African cities and kingdoms were located in the Sahel, a desert and savannah region south of the Sahara. After 750 AD, these cities and kingdoms arose because they served as waystations and terminus points for the trade routes across northern Africa. b. The power vacuum that by the retreat of the Romans was filled by desert Berbers, an indigenous African people (Saint Augustine, born in Carthage, may have been part Berber). The Berbers were primarily a nomadic people and would...
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...Paper One Content Revision 36. Effective conflict reduction or resolution through diplomacy/intervention Prevention diplomacy in Sudan What: preventive diplomacy was a major focus of international efforts -- led for the United Nations by its peacekeeping mission -- to ensure the successful holding of the Independence referendum for Southern Sudan in January 2011. How: The Security Council was actively engaged in this international effort through its statements and visits to the country. The Secretary-General appointed a high-level panel that also encouraged actions and agreements to permit the smooth holding of the referendum. Evaluation: In January 2011, three million people across Sudan and abroad went to the poll in a largely peaceful atmosphere, voting overwhelmingly for secession. While the situation in the region remains fragile with key challenges ahead, the absence of major violence around the referendum itself and the widespread acceptance of its outcome are considered a success for preventive diplomacy. Central America What: Armed conflicts How: The United Nations was deeply involved in the search for peace in Central America, whose armed conflicts were brought to end in the 1990s. UN observers monitored the 1990 elections in Nicaragua. UN envoys helped forge landmark peace agreements in El Salvador and Guatemala, and in both countries UN field missions managed by the Department of Political Affairs verified the implementation of the accords...
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...Inayah Shabazz May 5th, 2013 Within Ancient Africa the East and West African Societies were well known. The three west African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai arose in the Sahel and grew strong by the power of trade and cultural diffusion. In the east villages along the east coast begin to develop important trading cities along the east coast such as Kilwa, and The Great Zimbabwe. Together both the East and West African Societies each had many similarities and differences that each made them unique but brought them together through the power of both trade and cultural diffusion. The empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai controlled West Africa between A.D. 1000 and 1500. Each empire thrived on the trade of goods across the Sahara and was affected by the exchange of culture and belief systems along the trade routes. As each empire declined, the next empire took its place. Many great kings led these empires for example, Mali's Mansa Musa helped spread West African culture and resources around the world through his hajj. The empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai developed on trade networks where culture was "traded" along with salt and gold. Like the empires of West Africa, the trading cities in East Africa grew wealthy by controlling all incoming and outgoing trade. In East Africa the city state Kilwa became the wealthiest, most powerful coastal city-state. Kilwa grew rich because it was as far south on the coast as a ship from India could sail in one monsoon season. Therefore...
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...Have you ever wondered why Africa’s trade was so successful and popular, and how they did it? Mali and Swahili City-States are on the complete opposite ends of Africa, with Mali being on the western side and Swahili City-States being on the eastern side. Not only was the height of their trading in the 14th century, but they were the most successful trading regions of that time. The factors that enabled Mali and Swahili City-States to become successful were that they both had a government-controlled currency, efficient transportation, and controlled trade routes. The first factor that helped both sides be successful in trade was having a government-controlled currency. In Thomas Kenning’s article about trade in Africa, he explains that, “All...
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...Presentation Outline: Ghana, October 28, 2013 James Giberson An examination of Ghana's historical development and subsequent fate. What was responsible for the downfall of the kingdom? The Birth of Ghana The kingdom of Ghana was established in what is today West Africa in modern day Senegal and Mauritania (Not in what is present day Ghana) It lay between the Niger and Senegal river in what is today the dry desert of Sahel Ghana arose around the year 300 A.D. However, there is evidence that might suggest that it was earlier In this point of history the land was fairly fertile Indigenous people were able to collect wild cereals and domesticate cattle How Trade Changed the Region Being on the west coast of Africa previously, it was difficult to the reach the region having to cross large amounts of desert This was changed by the domestication of the camel Camels were able to go much farther and travel with an increased amount of freight used for trading purposes The increased trade brought better technology to the region such as iron metallurgy It led to an expansion in tools and weaponry As trade increased it brought a major population boom along with it With the merchants traveling from the east, along with them came ideals from the East The merchants brought the study of Islam with them and the entire region became immersed in it Gold With the increase in iron technology, along...
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...Vernacular Architecture In Africa Changes Over Time Vernacular Architecture in Africa has been vanishing in recent years. In West Africa, as well as the rest of Africa, western materials and construction techniques are rapidly replacing traditional ones. This is true even in the most remote areas Modern methods are seen as “civilized” and a reflection of affluence. Traditional materials and construction techniques have implications of being substandard or “primitive”. As a result, these techniques are not being passed on to future generations. In just a few generations, this part of Africa culture could be only a memory. Documenting these structures and techniques and understanding why these traditional architectural relations work is the goal of this project. A second goal is to demonstrate that traditional materials have the strength, comfort and beauty of modern applications. A change in perception has the potential of supporting a vernacular architecture. Vernacular architecture is the construction and building design of settlements that relate to their contexts and available resources. In his book, Ambe Njoh states ”Vernacular architecture is usually the product of specific climatic cultural, and economic conditions of a particular place.” Many different countries throughout Africa are not fortunate enough to buy building material or they just are not able to get access to any. Many African cultures custom build homes or any other buildings using traditional techniques...
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...Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: D Agriculture and Veterinary Volume 15 Issue 3 Version 1.0 Year 2015 Type : Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN: 2249-4626 & Print ISSN: 0975-5896 The Effects of Migration by Nomadic Farmers in the Livelihoods of Rural Crop Farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria By Emeka Nzeh Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT), Nigeria Abstract- The study focused on the effects of migration by nomadic farmers on livelihoods of the rural crop famers in Enugu State of Nigeria. The study had the following specific objectives; determine the socio-economic attributes of the rural crop and nomadic farmers; identify the sources of nomadic farmers conflicts in the rural crop farmers farm fields; assess the socioeconomic effects of migration by nomadic farmer on rural development and describe the methods adopted to resolve nomadic farmers conflicts with rural crop famers in the area. In the sampling procedure, purposive and random sampling techniques were used. A purposive multi stage sampling technique was used to obtain a sample size of 60 nomadic farmers and 80 rural farmers, information was elicited using questionnaires. Keywords: nomadic farmers, migration, rural community famers. GJSFR-D Classification : FOR Code: 070399 TheEffectsofMigrationbyNomadicFarmersintheLivelihoodsofRuralCropFarmersinEnuguStateNigeria Strictly as per the compliance...
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...Version 2 General Certificate of Education (A-level) June 2011 Geography GEOG1 (Specification 2030) Unit 1: Physical and Human Geography Post-Standardisation Mark Scheme Mark schemes are prepared by the Principal Examiner and considered, together with the relevant questions, by a panel of subject teachers. This mark scheme includes any amendments made at the standardisation events which all examiners participate in and is the scheme which was used by them in this examination. The standardisation process ensures that the mark scheme covers the candidates’ responses to questions and that every examiner understands and applies it in the same correct way. As preparation for standardisation each examiner analyses a number of candidates’ scripts: alternative answers not already covered by the mark scheme are discussed and legislated for. If, after the standardisation process, examiners encounter unusual answers which have not been raised they are required to refer these to the Principal Examiner. It must be stressed that a mark scheme is a working document, in many cases further developed and expanded on the basis of candidates’ reactions to a particular paper. Assumptions about future mark schemes on the basis of one year’s document should be avoided; whilst the guiding principles of assessment remain constant, details will change, depending on the content of a particular examination paper. Further copies of this Mark Scheme are available from:...
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...1. Yali’s question was “Why is it that you white people developed so much cargo and brought it to New Guinea, but we black people had little cargo of our own?” (14). One commonly espoused answer is the varying intelligence based on genetics (19). Jared Diamond disputes this by stating that evidence that “human differences in intelligence…parallel human differences in technology is lacking” (19). He also states that, in example, New Guineans who were raised in remote villages and were unschooled may seem stupid to Westerners in large cities. In contrast, when Westerners who visit remote villages in New Guinea seem stupid to the local population (20). The varying definitions and types of intelligent make it unreasonable to compare intelligence of genetically varying people, especially from different environments. Another commonly espoused answer is the differences in climate stimulate human energy and creativity to develop technology. Cold climates encourages one to build a warm home and clothing, while in hotter climates, simpler homes and less clothing(22). Diamond, however, states that, also in example, the people of northern Europe did not create anything important to the Eurasian civilizations until the last couple thousands of years, and simply had the luck to live in an environment that would receive...
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...Mali In the past two centuries Mali has been among African that reached their independences and took their political and economic destiny in his hand. Situated on the edge of the river Niger in West Africa, Mali is a country relatively big with 1,240,192 sq. km more than 15 million citizens. Mali is a developing country, with 65% of its land area in desert or semi-desert. Economic activity is limited mainly around the river area irrigated by the Niger River. Approximately 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% work in agriculture or fishing. Industrial activity is concentrated around agricultural activities”. Immigration is a very large extra income. (CiA.GOV). Mali obtained its independence in 1960, known its first military in 1968 before to become democratic in 1992. Its economic aspect is endanger because of the instability politic and military that shook the country in the beginning of this year The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by relative financial autonomy given to colon. The World War II was an opportunity after their implication of colonies to fight Hitler and Nazi from France, the colon especially general DEGAULLE promised to give away independence. In 1960 Mali negotiate its independence from France. In June 20th 1960 Mali and Senegal declare the independence under a federation in hope to start African Union. The dream was broken two months later. In august 20th 1960 the Senegal declared its independence and so is Mali in September 22th 1960...
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...Earthquakes I Earth’s composition Earth is a dense, stratified planet with many layers: core (inner and outer), mantle and crust Inner core: most dense material, solid iron and nickel Outer core: second most dense, liquid, iron and nickel Mantle: composed of oxygen, silicon, magnesium, aluminum Crust: composed of sodium and potassium rich silicate rocks Upper 100-350 km of upper mantle makes up asthenosphere: fluid layer due to heating from core Plate tectonics Earth’s uppermost layer, the lithosphere, broken up into 7 plates due to movement of asthenosphere underneath Plate tectonics- name for dynamic interactions of these plates Plate boundaries 3 types: divergent, covergent, and transform Divergent boundaries: tension from deep earth pulls two plates away from each other, allowing lava to upwell through the cracks and create new seafloor Covergent boundaries: two plates coming together as stress pushes plates toward each other- one plate forced under another in a subduction zone Transform boundaries: two plates slide past each other horizontally-frequent cause of destructive forces like earthquakes The nature of earthquakes Cause = abrupt movements on faults Fractures in earths lithosphere Normal fault- block above the fault has moved downward relative to the black below Reverse fault- upper block, above the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block (aka thrust fault) Right lateral strike slip fault- two blocks slide past one another Earths crustal...
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...Guns, Germs and Steel Page 1 GUNS, GERMS, AND STEEL: The Fates of Human Societies By Jared Diamond, 1997 About the Author: Jared Diamond is a professor of physiology at UCLA School of Medicine. He is a recipient of a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship and was awarded a 1999 National Medal of Science. He is also the author of The Third Chimpanzee. SUMMARY The book asks and attempts to answer the question, once humankind spread throughout the world, why did different populations in different locations have such different histories? The modern world has been shaped by conquest, epidemics, and genocide, the ingredients of which arose first in Eurasia. The book’s premise is that those ingredients required the development of agriculture. Agriculture also arose first in Eurasia, not because Eurasians were superior in any way to people of other continents, but because of a unique combination of naturally occurring advantages, including more and more suitable wild crops and animals to domesticate, a larger land mass with fewer barriers to the spread of people, crops, and technology, and an east-west axis which meant that climate was similar across the region. The book is well written and contains not only information about the history of cultures around the world, but excellent descriptions of the scientific methodologies used to study them, from how archeologists study the origin of agriculture to how writing evolved to how linguistics can trace the movements of peoples across huge geographic...
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...Advertising and Communications – Final Assignment Table of Contents Define your product 2 What is its function? 3 What problem or opportunity does it solve? 4 What is its name? 7 Reaching your audience 8 Who is your target audience? 9 What drivers will they respond to? 10 Delivering the message 11 What Integrated Marketing Communications mix will you select? 11 What specific media will you use? 14 Regulatory issues 15 What regulatory or trade association issues or restrictions do you operate under? 15 Final Campaign 16 Present a completed example of an advertising/commercial/alternate media campaign. 16 As we saw with the pre-assignment, the desserts are very diversified and can be eaten in different way: eat-in or take away, drink or eat, fruity or nature, for adults or children… This is a large subject and many actors are already implanted. Thus, in such a competitive environment, it is important for a new brand to be different: to offer a new concept in order to position the brand as the new favorite dessert in the consumer’s mind. Define your product According to a study managed by MedecineNet.com, United States’ children and teenagers do not eat enough fruits[1]. Moreover the obesity rate in the United States grew up last decades: ““Over the last three decades, obesity rates among children and adolescents have nearly tripled,” said CDC Director Thomas R. Frieden, MD. “Obese children...
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